Parlers romani et romani standard à l’école : tensions entre politique officielle et politique en classe

Marija Apostolović, Université Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris

Résumé

La question du choix de la variété à enseigner se pose notamment dans le contexte minoritaire, comme c’est le cas pour la minorité rom en Serbie. L’enseignement exclusif du romani standard pourrait créer des tensions avec d’autres variétés. Dans le cadre d’une recherche sur l’enseignement/apprentissage du romani en Serbie, cet article propose un regard analytique sur le rapport des politiques linguistiques officielles en matière d’enseignement du romani et celles adoptées en classe. Il tente d’identifier la nature de ce rapport ainsi que les idéologies qui sous-tendent les choix linguistiques. L’article se base sur l’analyse des observations de classe de romani (vingt-quatre classes ont été observées) ainsi que des entretiens compréhensifs menés auprès d’élèves roms (dix entretiens de groupe), d’une enseignante de romani et du co-auteur des manuels et des programmes d’enseignement dans une école primaire en Serbie.

Mots clés : romani standard, parlers romani, politique linguistique, politiques de classe, tensions linguistiques.

Abstract

The question of which language variety to teach is critical in minority teaching contexts, as is the case with Romani in Serbia. The exclusive teaching of standard Romani might provoke tensions with other Romani varieties in class. In the context of a study on the learning and teaching of the Romani language in Serbia, this article offers an analytical look at the relation between the official language policy toward Romani teaching, and policies adopted in a Romani class. It then attempts to identify the nature of this relationship and to describe the ideologies underlying the language choices made. The article is based on analyses of observations in Romani classrooms (twenty-four classes were observed) and comprehensive interviews carried out with Romani pupils (ten group interviews), a Romani teacher and an author of textbooks and curriculum for Romani teaching in a primary school in Serbia.

Introduction

La communauté rom est, depuis 2002, officiellement reconnue comme minorité nationale en Serbie et peut, dès lors, bénéficier du droit à l’étude de la langue romani avec des éléments de culture nationale à l’école, dont l’objectif principal est le maintien et le développement identitaire. Il s’agit d’une matière destinée aux élèves roms, scolarisés en serbe ou dans une autre langue minoritaire, qui ont le romani comme langue maternelle. Le Conseil national de la minorité rom (désormais le CNMR) est désigné dans les textes officiels serbes comme un acteur important dans les politiques en matière d’enseignement du romani.

Or, son choix d’enseigner le romani standard à l’école soulève d’emblée la question du rapport aux parlers romani et de leur place à l’école, notamment dans le contexte d’une langue nouvellement standardisée. En effet, l’enseignement de la forme standard pourrait créer des tensions avec les parlers, surtout en milieu minoritaire (cf. Abouzaid, 2011, Boudreau & Perrot, 2005, Leblanc, 1987). Ainsi, Leblanc (1987) met au jour le problème de l’écart ressenti entre français vernaculaire et français de référence par les enfants acadiens. Abouzaid (2011), quant à elle, démontre un écart considérable entre tarifite (variété du berbère) et amazighe officielle (aussi appelé berbère standard) perçus par les enseignants et leurs élèves au Maroc. Dès lors, nous nous interrogeons sur le rapport entre romani standard et parlers romani à l’école en Serbie. Quelles sont les politiques adoptées en classe ? Quel est le rapport de ces dernières aux  politiques du CNMR ?

De nombreuses études interrogent le rapport entre politiques officielles et ressenti des enseignants et/ou des élèves ou pratiques effectives (cf. Abouzaid, 2011; Boudreau & Perrot, 2005; Martin, 2005). Pourtant, peu de recherches, à notre connaissance, articulent ces trois aspects. Cet article se propose d’apporter un éclairage sur le rapport de la politique du CNMR et celle en classe de romani, en portant une attention particulière à l’analyse de l’origine des choix opérés. Dans cette optique, nous nous attacherons d’abord à identifier les orientations des politiques du CNMR, notamment les idéologies qui sous-tendent le choix du romani standard. Nous nous pencherons ensuite sur la présentation de notre terrain de recherche et des outils méthodologiques mis en œuvre pour ensuite analyser les interactions en classe de romani et les discours, et ainsi identifier les politiques pratiquées et leur origine.

Mais d’abord, quelques précisions terminologiques et contextuelles s’imposent. Les parlers romani sont des variantes linguistiques minimales dans une communauté (Tillinger, 2013, p. 15-16) qui désignent les pratiques langagières effectives de la ville/du village, du groupe ou de la famille appartenant à la population rom. Le dialecte quant à lui représente une variété restreinte à une aire géographique (Gadet, 2007 : 172). En Serbie, les dialectes arli et gurbet sont les deux dialectes de romani les plus répandus. Quand nous nous référons à un dialecte, nous utilisons le terme “variété linguistique” afin d’éviter toute connotation négative attribuée à la notion de dialecte. À l’opposition des parlers romani, le romani standard représente la norme de référence résultant d’un processus de normalisation et de codification. Ce terme renvoie alors à la forme construite et légitime de romani dit standard en contexte serbe que les enseignants doivent apprendre dans le cadre de leur travail puisqu’ils parlent, de manière générale, une autre variété du romani. Lors de la formation (d’environ une semaine), ils apprennent les notions du romani standard qu’ils doivent ensuite enseigner à leur tour. À l’échelle mondiale, le romani standard international est en cours d’élaboration depuis les années 1990 dans l’objectif de permettre la cohésion et la compréhension mutuelle de tous les Roms dans le monde.

Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous considérons, dans la veine de travaux de Spolsky (2004, 2007) et de Bonacina-Pugh (2012), les pratiques linguistiques en classe comme politiques, dans le sens où elles constituent les patterns habituels (représentant un ensemble de choix grammaticaux, de sons, de mots – Spolsky, 2004, p. 9) qu’un individu choisit parmi les variétés qui constituent son répertoire linguistique (Spolsky, 2004, p. 5). Pour les désigner, nous empruntons la notion de politiques linguistiques pratiquées proposée par Bonacina-Pugh (2012).  Cette auteure soutient que la politique linguistique se construit dans les pratiques, et que les deux ne doivent pas forcément être distinctes (2012, p. 217). Transposée au terrain de l’école, cette notion désigne alors que les pratiques linguistiques privilégiées en classe constituent les politiques promulguées.

Les politiques linguistiques du Conseil national de la minorité rom : enseignement exclusif du romani standard

L’adoption de la Loi sur la protection des droits et des libertés des minorités nationales en 2002 1 jette les bases du cadre juridique au droit à l’étude de la langue romani avec des éléments de culture nationale en Serbie. Cette dernière doit assurer, entre autres, le maintien de l’identité et de la culture rom. Constitué en 2003, le CNMR est alors désigné comme acteur majeur dans la décision des politiques linguistiques (cf. Calvet, 1987) en matière d’enseignement du romani. Cette institution est responsable de l’élaboration des manuels, des plans et des programmes, mais aussi de toutes les activités assurant le bon déroulement de l’enseignement du romani (la formation des enseignants, l’animation des parents et des enfants pour l’étude de cette langue, etc.)2.

Pourtant, la condition primordiale pour l’introduction de cette matière à l’école était l’élaboration du romani standard (entretien avec Samir). Le CNMR a adopté la proposition de Ljuan Koko (2017, p. 191) en 2013 après des années de discussion à ce sujet. Le romani avec des éléments de culture nationale est officiellement introduit dans le système éducatif serbe en 2015-2016 alors que les manuels en romani standard sont publiés en 2018.

Or, le choix d’enseigner le romani standard remet en question la place des parlers romani à l’école. Afin de mieux comprendre les orientations politiques du CNMR, le rapport du romani standard et de ses parlers, nous analyserons les idéologies qui sous-tendent l’utilisation de la forme standard. Il est à noter que nous entendons par les idéologies « un système particulier d’idées, de valeurs, de croyances […] » (Pouillon, 1978 :7).

La standardisation du romani et les idéologies nationales

L’élaboration du standard, selon le groupe de travail responsable de sa standardisation dans les pays de l’ex-Yougoslavie (la Slovénie, la Croatie, la Bosnie-Herzégovine, le Monténégro, la Macédoine, le Kosovo et la Serbie) répond à deux objectifs : l’un communicatif (rendre la communication plus efficace) et l’autre symbolique (le romani comme symbole de l’identité nationale et de l’unité) (Djurić, 2012, p. 9). Le romani standard devrait assurer l’intercompréhension et l’efficacité de communication qui permettra ainsi l’unification de la population rom en créant un sentiment d’appartenance à la communauté imaginée (Anderson, 2002). 

Le romani est chargé de cet aspect symbolique qui se trouve dans de nombreux discours d’intelligentsia rom dont nous allons citer quelques passages. Le romani y apparaît comme pilier de la nation et de l’identité roms. Ainsi, il n’est pas étonnant que Djurić affirme que « […] la langue rromani est un élément essentiel de l’identité nationale » (2005, p. 86; pour la commodité de la lecture, dans cet article, nous utilisons la graphie “romani” qui est l’usage accepté en français. La graphie “rromani” est utilisée par les intellectuels roms car le romani distingue deux phonèmes “r”: l’un roulé bref qui s’écrit “r” et l’autre long qui s’écrit “rr”). De même, les auteurs de l’ouvrage Histoire de la langue romani. Guide pour les enseignants de langue romani avec des éléments de culture nationale attribuent au romani le symbole de force en tant que vecteur national :

La langue romani a conservé leur essence [des Roms], leur philosophie, leur religion, leur origine, leur histoire. Elle a conservé leur style et mode de vie ce qui les rend [des Roms] si authentiques. Seulement, le mot et rien d’autre. Quelle force cette langue avait-elle pour remplacer toutes les autres catégories fondamentales qui font d’une communauté, d’un groupe une nation. […] La langue est importante pour les Roms parce qu’elle permet la reconnaissance de leur identité » (Koko, Djurić et Courthiade, 2017, p. 6) [notre traduction] 3

La dimension patrimoniale du romani mise en exergue dans cet extrait est le fil conducteur dans la construction nationale des Roms qui transpire dans cette langue. En effet, pour le peuple rom étant sans territoire, religion commune et langue écrite depuis des siècles, le romani devient un aspect privilégié dans la construction et la promotion identitaire. 

En gardant à l’esprit ce fort symbolique dont le romani est porteur, il va sans dire que le retour du romani à ses origines est la clé pour l’élaboration de la forme standardisée (Samir, Journal de terrain, octobre 2019). Il s’agit donc de rendre l’authenticité d’autrefois à cette langue. Cette démarche veut mettre un terme à l’influence des langues environnantes qui pèse lourdement sur les variétés romani. En effet, ces dernières regorgent des emprunts et des influences du serbe et du turc en raison de leurs contacts dans le passé.  Pour se libérer de ces traces, il est indispensable, d’une part, de remplacer les emprunts par les mots roms d’une des variétés, ou par ceux d’origine indienne (entretien avec Samir). D’autre part, il est nécessaire de revenir à la prononciation « authentique » à savoir « à l’indienne » (Journal de terrain, octobre 2019). Cette politique de purification linguistique mise en œuvre dans l’élaboration du romani standard est limpide dans l’extrait d’entretien suivant :

Samir : […] si je dis quelque chose de faux / mon dialecte a beaucoup de mots turcs / beaucoup de mots turcs / ici il y a beaucoup de mots serbes puis vous nettoyez tout ça / moi / quand j’ai remis des manuels à l’Institut pédagogique de Voïvodine / celui qui était chargé de la question de la minorité rom / il n’a pas analysé la pédagogie / la didactique / la psychologie des manuels / mais il me demande des mots inconnus / Je lui dis: « Bon / comment vas-tu dire « la nature » ? » (il écrit le mot sur le papier) / elle (personne chargée de la question de la minorité rom) est restée bouche bée / « Dis-moi / comment vas-tu dire « la plante » ? » (il écrit le mot sur le papier) / elle est restée bouche bée / « Dis-moi / comment vas-tu dire « le ciel » ? » (il écrit le mot sur le papier) « VAS-Y / DIS-moi / je vais noter / alors / est-ce que c’est logique de prendre le mot indien ou pas / dis-moi ? est-ce que tu veux qu’on mette pour « la nature » la nature (le mot en serbe) et que tout le monde se moque de nous ? » vous comprenez ? mais c’est / la langue est un processus.

Ce pan de discours met en lumière cette aspiration à la langue authentique, à un romani pur. Tout ce qui n’entre pas dans cette catégorie doit être écarté, rejeté, car il est faux. Devons-nous alors comprendre, en filigrane, que les parlers romani ne sont pas légitimes ?

En analysant le lien étroit entre l’élaboration de la langue unifiée et l’identité nationale des Kurdes, Clémence Scalbert Yücel (2006, p. 267) avance que le travail sur le lexique sous forme d’épuration linguistique est :

un des points essentiels (bien que hautement symbolique) de la langue en ce qu’elle a de relatif à l’identité et à la définition de soi. L’étymologie, l’origine du mot, prend un poids considérable dans les représentations kurdes et le mot “étranger” est alors chassé comme un occupant.

Clémence Scalbert Yücel nous laisse entendre ici que la démarche de purification linguistique est intimement liée à la construction de l’identité nationale, et qu’elle relève par ailleurs des idéologies nationalistes. Dans cette perspective, les parlers qui, depuis des siècles, sont en contact avec des langues environnantes ont quelle place? Quel est le rapport entre les parlers et le romani standard à l’école ? Est-ce qu’ils sont mutuellement exclusifs ?

Le romani standard, l’idéologie du standard et l’école

La standardisation est un processus visant l’élaboration d’une variété linguistique homogénéisée et normative. Comme le remarque Rebourcet (2008, p. 110), le principe unificateur inhérent à ce processus discrimine toute autre variante lexicale, grammaticale ou phonologique car elle est considérée comme une déviance, une erreur d’usage. Il s’agit ici de l’idéologie du standard « qui valorise l’uniformité comme état idéal pour une langue, dont l’écrit serait la forme parachevée » (Gadet, 2007, p. 27). Le propos de notre interlocuteur est éclairant quant à cette hégémonie du romani standard sur les variantes et du romani standard comme idéal à atteindre.

Samir : Comme c’est en serbe / vous n’allez alors pas permettre que les enfants parlent le parler de Vranje [il est à noter que le parler de Vranje appartient à la région dialectale de Prizren et du Timok; ne faisant pas la base de la langue standard, il est souvent perçu comme « incorrect »]/ n’est-ce pas ? vous allez leur demander de parler la langue standard / S’IL [l’enfant] dit / quand il vient à l’école / « VA » (il note ce mot sur le papier) ou dit (il note ce mot sur le papier) « VAS » et vous dites en fait que c’est « VAST » qui est correct (il note ce mot sur le papier) / il doit apprendre que c’est VAST (il note ce mot sur le papier) / S’IL dit « OJI » (il note ce mot sur le papier) ou ils [les enfants] disent « VOJ » (il note ce mot sur le papier) / tu dis que c’est « VOJ » qui est correct (il note ce mot sur le papier) / il doit alors le corriger / c’est donc le standard […]

En mettant en perspective des exemples issus des parlers romani (va, vas, vast ; oji, voj ; čher, kjer, ćhje) et du romani standard (vast, voj, kher; [vast – la main ; voj – elle ; kher – une maison]), notre interlocuteur met alors en avant le principe discriminatoire des variantes. L’emploie du verbe modal « devoir » renvoie ici à deux acteurs : aux enseignants et aux enfants. D’une part, les enseignants de romani sont considérés comme référents du romani standard et leur l’obligation est d’enseigner aux élèves la langue correcte tout en corrigeant leur parler. D’autre part, les élèves doivent s’approprier des règles de la forme standardisée. L’école est alors un lieu privilégié pour la diffusion et la valorisation d’un mieux dire, de la norme de référence, tout en stigmatisant les parlers. Selon notre interlocuteur, la visée du standard, c’est de corriger la manière de parler des élèves pour se conformer à la norme, à ce qui est « correct ». L’idéal à atteindre, c’est alors le romani standard. 

À la lumière des informations avancées précédemment, nous pouvons constater que le CNMR privilégie l’enseignement du romani standard tout en rejetant ou dévalorisant les parlers romani. Or, comment ce choix se manifeste-t-il à l’école ? Afin de répondre à cette question, nous allons tout d’abord présenter notre corpus et notre terrain de recherche pour analyser ensuite les politiques pratiquées en classe et les tensions qui en découlent. 

Présentation du corpus et du terrain de recherche

Notre recherche s’inscrit dans un paradigme compréhensif des phénomènes où nous cherchons à comprendre les enjeux, les tensions et les effets pervers autour de l’enseignement/apprentissage du romani dans les écoles primaires en Serbie. En Serbie, l’école primaire dure 8 ans, de la 1ère à la 8e classe.

Choix de l’école

Notre étude se base principalement sur l’enquête menée dans une école primaire au nord-est de la Serbie en 2018 et notamment en 2019. Le choix de cet établissement résulte d’une stabilité relative de l’enseignement du romani qui y figure. En effet, lors de notre enquête en 2018, nous avons pu qualifier notre terrain de sensible (Bouillon, Fresia et Taillo, 2005). Cette sensibilité est, en partie, due à l’aspect fragile et instable de l’enseignement du romani dans les écoles primaires. 

L’école en question est une des rares en Serbie centrale qui assure l’enseignement de cette langue à un grand nombre d’élèves roms (environ 170 des 500 élèves ont opté pour cette matière) et ce, de manière continue depuis 2014. Lors de notre enquête, huit groupes d’élèves, de la 1ère à la 6e classe, suivaient l’enseignement de cette matière à raison d’une heure et demie (deux cours) par semaine. Il est important de souligner qu’une seule enseignante est responsable des cours de romani dans cette école.  

La co-construction des données et les choix méthodologiques

Notre enquête s’inscrit dans une démarche ethnographique qui s’est déroulée en deux étapes. Tout d’abord, nous avons effectué des observations de classe sous forme d’observation participante afin d’étudier à travers les interactions en classe le rapport entre le romani standard et les parlers romani des enfants. À cet effet, nous avons observé au total vingt-quatre cours auprès des élèves de la 1ère à la 4e classe 4 (en 2018 et 2019). Il est nécessaire d’indiquer que les séances observées en 2018 ne sont pas enregistrées, car il s’agit d’une population sensible, tel que l’a souligné la directrice de l’école. 

La deuxième étape a consisté en la réalisation de dix entretiens compréhensifs (Kaufmann, 1996, Ramos, 2015) de groupe auprès d’élèves de 8 à 10 ans d’une durée d’environ 30-40 minutes. Nous avons réalisé cinq entretiens de groupe avec les élèves de la 2e classe et cinq entretiens de groupes avec les élèves de la 4e classe. Chaque groupe était constitué de deux à quatre élèves. Il est important d’indiquer que l’élaboration des dessins réflexifs a précédé les entretiens. Pour le propos de cet article, nous n’avons pas analysé les dessins réflexifs. 

Nous nous sommes penchés sur le ressenti des élèves en cours de romani ainsi qu’à leurs représentations du romani enseigné.  De plus, nous avons réalisé cinq entretiens individuels d’une durée de 30 minutes à 1h15 avec les professeures des écoles, l’enseignante de romani et le coauteur des manuels et des programmes d’enseignement. Les entretiens ont principalement eu lieu à l’école à l’exception de l’entretien avec le coauteur des manuels qui s’est tenu dans un café. L’objectif de cette étape d’enquête était d’obtenir et de croiser les représentations des différents acteurs éducatifs sur l’enseignement/apprentissage du romani à l’école. Cet éclectisme d’outils méthodologiques ainsi qu’une diversification des interlocuteurs nous permettent en effet « de mieux tenir compte des multiples registres et stratification du réel social que le chercheur veut investiguer » (Olivier de Sardan, 2012, p. 72).  

Pour le propos de cet article, notre analyse s’appuie sur les observations de classe effectuées en 2018 et 2019, et des entretiens réalisés auprès d’élèves, d’une enseignante de romani et de l’un des auteurs des manuels, des plans et des programmes d’enseignement du romani. Enfin, nous avons mené les entretiens en serbe et avons traduit les extraits en français pour corroborer notre analyse des exemples les plus significatifs.

Tensions entre romani standard et parlers romani en classe

Avant de nous pencher sur l’analyse de notre corpus, nous allons tout d’abord exposer la situation sociolinguistique particulière de l’école afin de mieux comprendre le contexte de classe de romani. 

Les élèves roms sont scolarisés en serbe, mais ils parlent, de manière générale, le romani avec leur  famille (leur langue première). Ils viennent du Kosovo – qui  reste toujours une région autonome pour la Serbie qui a contesté son indépendance en 2008 – ou du sud de la Serbie. Leurs parlers appartiennent à la variété arli. Pourtant, la première langue de l’enseignante d’origine rom est le serbe. Puisque sa famille appartient à la communauté gurbet,  elle comprend également cette variété du romani. Elle a aussi appris le romani standard lors de la formation obligatoire des enseignants en romani et en travaillant auprès des enfants à l’école, elle a pu apprendre des notions d’arli. En général, elle parle serbe en classe et ce, pour deux raisons. D’une part, elle ne se sent pas assez compétente pour mener une longue conversation en romani. D’autre part, elle considère qu’il faudrait parler davantage en serbe, car les enfants roms ne maîtrisent pas bien cette langue. Compte tenu de la complexité du terrain et de la situation linguistique en classe, et aussi par faute de place dans cet article, nous allons nous focaliser uniquement dans ces extraits sur la politique pratiquée à l’égard du romani standard et des parlers romani. 

Politiques pratiquées en classe : vers l’exclusion du romani standard

Il s’agit ici d’un cours avec les élèves de 4e classe. Danijela, enseignante de romani, discute de l’automne avec les élèves sans aucun support pédagogique. Pour des raisons d’anonymat, tous les prénoms ont été modifiés.

Au début du cours, le dialogue entre Danijela et quelques élèves a attiré notre attention. Dans l’extrait, les énoncés en romani sont en gras et les énoncés en serbes sont en romain. La traduction en français se trouve entre guillemets (< >). En Serbie, les deux alphabets sont en usage : l’alphabet cyrillique et l’alphabet latin. L’alphabet cyrillique est officiel, mais l’alphabet du romani standard est le latin. Pourtant, l’enseignante utilise les deux alphabets en romani – cyrillique et latin, qui selon elle, est une approche plus pédagogique. Puisque les enfants roms ne maîtrisent pas bien l’écriture en serbe, notamment l’alphabet cyrillique, l’enseignante de romani écrit en alphabet cyrillique pour que les enfants apprennent bien les lettres.

Danijela: Šta pada? <Qu’est-ce qu’il tombe ?>

Elizabeta: sneg <de la neige>

Danijela: u jesen nam nikako ne pada sneg, nego? <en automne il ne tombe pas du tout de neige, mais ?>

Leontina : nego boršim <mais la pluie>

Danijela : KIŠA. Boršim se kaže? <PLUIE. On dit « boršim » ?>  

Les enfants : Da ! <Oui !>

Danijela : (en s’adressant au chercheur) Vidiš, oni kažu kiša « boršim », a mi kažemo « bršano ». A duva vetar ? <Tu vois, pour la pluie, ils disent « boršim » et nous, on dit « bršano ».  Et il y a du vent ?>

Les enfants : Balval <le vent>

Anabela rajoute : Pudela balval  <il y a du vent>

L’enseignante note au tableau (en alphabet cyrillique) : Перела боршим, пурдела балвал. (en alphabet latin : « Perela boršim, purdela balval ».) <Il pleut, il y a du vent.>

Dans cet extrait, l’enseignante initie une discussion sur le temps en automne. Le serbe est utilisé comme médium de l’interaction en classe, c’est-à-dire, le code linguistique auquel les participants de classe recourent (Bonacina-Pugh, 2012, p. 222). Toutefois, à la question de l’enseignante, les élèves répondent spontanément, soit en serbe, soit en romani. Aucune langue n’est ni déviante ni sanctionnée. Au contraire, le romani répond plutôt à des fins fonctionnelles. Autrement dit, les élèves ne recourent qu’à leur parler pour répondre à une question précise de vocabulaire. Quand l’enseignante ne connaît pas la variante lexicale dans le parler des élèves (ex. boršim), elle considère ces derniers comme détenteurs de leur parler et accepte leur manière de s’exprimer. Pourtant, il est intéressant de constater que Danijela met en perspective deux variantes du mot « pluie » – boršim et  bršano – en recourant à un commentaire adressé uniquement à la chercheure tout en excluant les enfants. Elle ne s’attarde pas non plus sur les différentes façons de dire le terme en romani standard qui figure dans les manuels, soit « brišind ». 

Lorsque Danijela pose implicitement la question « Comment on dit ‛Il y a du vent’ en romani? », elle cherche une réponse en parler romani. Le fait qu’elle ne commente pas la production des élèves nous laisse penser qu’elle la valide. C’est notamment en inscrivant au tableau la phrase  « Perela boršim, purdela balval. » que l’enseignante manifeste explicitement son choix linguistique. En reprenant le mot « boršim », nous pouvons constater que son choix s’inscrit dans les parlers romani. Cette enseignante n’indique nulle part ni le terme en romani standard ni dans une autre variété. Pourrions-nous alors parler de l’exclusion tacite de la forme standardisée et de la légitimation de l’usage des élèves ? Pourtant, la seconde partie de la phrase « purdela balval » n’est pas tout à fait conforme à la proposition d’Anabela « pudela balval ». Sans expliquer pourquoi le verbe « purdela » figure au tableau, l’enseignante continue la discussion sur l’automne. Toutefois, ce petit écart entre la forme orale et écrite va démontrer la tension existante entre romani standard et parlers romani. Penchons-nous alors sur l’extrait suivant qui nous permettra de mieux comprendre cette tension à l’œuvre. 

À la suite d’une discussion sur les animaux, les légumes et les fruits en automne, Leontina, une élève, revient à la phrase figurant au tableau « Perela boršim, purdela balval. » et commente : 

Leontina: « akaval » <kamaraj ?> « purdela » pisine, samo dodaje « r », « purdela/PUDELA » <ce <?> est écrit « purdela », le « r » est juste ajouté, « purdela /PUDELA »

Elizabeta: « PUDELA BALVAL »

Danijela : Da, ali ovako se pravilno piše. Ovako se piše pravilno. <Oui, mais c’est comme ça qu’on écrit correctement. C’est comme ça qu’on écrit correctement.>

Anabela : kod nas se <CHEZ nous>

Danijela : Vi KAŽETE « Pudela balval », a mi kažemo « PURDELA » <Vous DITES, vous DITES « Pudela balval » et nous, on DIT « PURDELA »>

Anabela : kod nas se <chez NOUS}>

Danijela: Nije MI, NEGO TO tako u romskom jeziku. <Pas NOUS, mais c’est comme ça en romani>

Les filles parlent en cœur <?>

Danijela : PA vi NAPIšite kako vi kažete » <Et vous ECRivez comme vous dites>

Anabela : E tako ! (zadovoljno)} <Ouiiii ! (le contentement de la fille)>

Elizabeta : pudela balval <il y a du vent>

Danijela : Dobro, to jedno slovo manje-više <BON, c’est plus ou moins une lettre>

Elizabeta : Da! <Oui !>

Cet épisode interactionnel est très intéressant, car il met en œuvre une confrontation explicite du romani de l’école et des élèves. En effet, en se référant à son usage du romani, Leontina corrige l’enseignante qui a ajouté une lettre dans le mot « purdela ». De son côté, l’enseignante justifie « son erreur » en se référant à la norme standard et en y insistant plusieurs fois. Danijela désigne donc leur usage comme déviant. Toutefois, Anabela insiste sur leur variante, ce qui amène l’enseignante à expliquer son choix de nouveau – les élèves disent ce verbe d’une façon, mais en romani on utilise une forme légèrement différente. Ainsi, l’enseignante se réfère clairement au romani standard et marque une nette frontière entre l’usage des élèves et la forme correcte. Malgré cet éclaircissement, les élèves ignorent la correction de l’enseignante et mettent en évidence un rapport conflictuel entre ces deux formes. Tiraillée entre le romani de référence qu’elle doit enseigner et la pratique des enfants, l’enseignante finit par valider leur parler en leur laissant le choix d’écrire « pudela » sous cette forme. Nous pourrions dès lors comprendre cette pratique comme un compromis entre la norme scolaire – la politique officielle – et la norme des élèves – politique pratiquée. L’enseignante n’a pas corrigé le verbe qu’elle a écrit au tableau, ce qui montre sa volonté de transmettre la norme légitime en laissant une trace symbolique au tableau. En revanche, les élèves ont pu inscrire leur mot d’usage dans leurs cahiers. À la fin de cet extrait, les enfants semblent heureux de cette suggestion, ce qui démontre clairement l’importance qu’ils attachent à leur propre usage de même que la résistance et la non-acceptation de la variété proposée par l’enseignante. Il s’agit d’une sorte de victoire symbolique des pratiques linguistiques sur les politiques du CNMR. 

Observons maintenant un dialogue court sur les fruits et les légumes en automne.

Danijela : […] IMAMO još neke plodove u jesen, neko voće i povrće. Koje voće jedemo kada je jesen? <Nous avons encore quelques fruits en automne, certains fruits et légumes. Quels fruits mange-t-on en automne ?>

Anabela : drakha <des raisins>

Elizabeta : drakha, phabaja <des raisins, des pommes>

Leontina : kruške <des poires>

Elizabeta : kruške <des poires>

Danijela : bravo, to ćemo da i napišemo <Bravo, on va l’écrire>

Dans cet extrait, les élèves énumèrent les fruits dans leur parler: drakha, phabaja, kruške. L’enseignante les félicite et accueillit avec bienveillance leurs mots. Il importe de noter que le terme « kruške » est un emprunt serbe que les élèves utilisent dans leur parler. L’attitude de l’enseignante ne consiste pas à les corriger ou à leur fournir l’équivalent en romani standard (kruške → ambrola). Au contraire, elle accepte leur usage et les complimente, ce qui montre que le contenu de leur réponse prime sur la forme. Autrement dit, les connaissances des élèves sont plus importantes que le choix de langue ou de variété pour les exprimer. 

De même, nous pouvons remarquer le même phénomène dans une classe avec les élèves en 2e classe. 

Danijela dit aux élèves d’ouvrir leurs cahiers à la page où se trouve la première leçon. 

Danijela : Šta je ovde ? <Qu’est-ce qu’on a ici ?>

Elle montre et dit : na prvoj strani je selo. Kako vi kažete « selo » ? <sur la première page, c’est la campagne. Comment vous dites « la campagne » ?>

Les enfants : gav <la campagne>

Danijela: A ovo je grad. Kako kažete grad ? <Et ça, c’est la ville. Comment vous dites la ville ?>

Les enfants: Grado <la ville>

Danijela : Ovde je diz. Šta ima sve u selu? <Ici, c’est « diz » Qu’est-ce qu’il y a à la campagne ?>

Il est intéressant de remarquer que l’enseignante pose, de manière récurrente, la même question : « Comment dites-vous… ? ». Ce faisant, elle mobilise explicitement les parlers des élèves en classe, ce qui lui permet aussi de mettre en perspective leur usage avec le vocabulaire qui figure dans le manuel. Dès qu’il y a une autre façon de dire, en l’occurrence les mots « grado » et « diz » qui désignent la ville, Danijela attire l’attention des élèves sur ce fait. Pourtant, l’enseignante ne fournit pas d’explication étoffée et poursuit ensuite la discussion. Or, c’est au moment d’inscrire le vocabulaire de la leçon au tableau que nous pouvons observer son choix et son attitude envers les parlers des enfants et le romani standard. Elle y note les mots « gav (selo) » et « grado (grad) » en ajoutant entre parenthèses la signification en serbe. Comme nous pouvons le constater, c’est le mot « grado » que les enfants utilisent, et non pas « diz », qui figure au tableau. Cet acte est assez significatif, comme pour les extraits ci-dessus, dans le sens où le tableau, dans sa dimension symbolique, est considéré comme « producteur de valeur » (Nonnon, 2000, p. 91). Autrement dit, les énoncés inscrits au tableau se dotent d’une légitimité, car il s’agit de ce qui est jugé comme le plus important par l’enseignant et ce que les enfants peuvent mémoriser. Toutefois, cette légitimité ne renvoie pas seulement à l’aspect de l’apprentissage à parler proprement, mais aussi à la place et au rapport des variétés en classe. Le mot en romani standard qui n’est enseigné qu’à un niveau purement informatif à l’oral n’est pas susceptible d’être retenu et de faire l’objet d’un stockage (ou mémorisation) car, comme le remarque Nonnon (2000, p. 91), « l’oral, [étant] fugace et insaisissable […] semble ne rien produire ». D’autre part, il met en lumière la politique de l’enseignante qui consiste à marginaliser, voire exclure la forme standard, à savoir, la politique du CNMR.

Vers l’origine des tensions en classe

Comme nous l’avons vu, la politique de l’enseignante consiste à favoriser les parlers romani tout en marginalisant le romani standard. Dès lors, nous pourrions qualifier sa politique d’adaptative. Or, notre intention n’est pas seulement de mettre en lumière l’écart existant entre les politiques officielles et de classe, mais aussi de comprendre leur origine. Le conflit de ces deux formes de romani et les pratiques de l’enseignante ne peuvent être compris que si nous recourons à l’analyse du discours des élèves et de l’enseignante.

La non identification au romani de l’école

La standardisation est un processus qui vise à construire une variété linguistique qui est unifiée et normative. Il s’agit d’une homogénéisation des pratiques langagières qui s’effectue en fixant des règles et des invariants linguistiques via un appareil prescriptif – écrits académiques, dictionnaires, grammaires, manuels scolaires, etc. À cette forme standardisée dite norme prescriptive, s’oppose la norme d’usage qui provient des locuteurs. Ainsi, Siouffi pointe un écart entre la compétence des locuteurs, norme d’usage, et la norme de référence (2007, p. VIII). Dans le même esprit, Aléong, attire notre attention sur l’existence de possibles écarts considérables entre la langue enseignée, qu’il appelle la langue scolaire ou l’enseignement de bon usage, et la langue maternelle des enfants en parlant du paradoxe de la dénomination de « langue maternelle » enseignée à l’école (1983, p. 270).

Lors d’une séance où Danijela, enseignante de romani, a regroupé les élèves de 2e et quelques élèves de 6e classe, elle donne la tâche suivante à ces derniers. Il s’agit de recopier le poème « Amari čhib » (« Notre langue ») d’un magazine en romani, puis de le traduire en serbe. Si un mot leur est étranger, Danijela propose de leur fournir la traduction. Almir observe le poème et s’adresse à l’enseignante : « Qu’est-ce que c’est Madame ? Ce n’est pas le romani ! ». En recopiant ensuite le poème, il constate à haute voix : « Ce n’est pas notre langue ». Enfin, c’est l’enseignante qui fait la traduction. Almir se rend finalement compte que « Ce n’est pas comme nos mots ». Pourtant, cette perception du romani standard n’est pas isolée. Dans les entretiens collectifs que nous avons menés auprès d’élèves, ils expriment clairement et de manière récurrente, une frontière entre leur langue et la langue de l’enseignante, à savoir celle de l’école. Pour illustrer, il suffit de mobiliser l’extrait suivant :

Chercheure : D’accord / Et Elizabeta / qu’est-ce que tu dirais / quelle est ta langue ?

Elizabeta: romani

Chercheure : et la langue que tu apprends chez l’enseignante ?

Elizabeta: non (de manière sec)

Chercheure : et pourquoi ce n’est pas ta langue ?

Elizabeta: parce que mes mots sont MES MOTS / et ce mot (en romani de l’école) ce n’est pas mon mot

Chercheure : ce ne sont pas tes mots

Elizabeta: si / quand elle parle romani / nous on ne la comprend pas

La fracture entre la forme standardisée et les parlers se traduit donc ici par la non-identification des enfants au romani de l’école. Comme le remarque Abouzaid dans le contexte marocain, un sentiment d’extranéité s’installe chez les enfants (2011, p. 224). Nous pourrions alors nous demander si ce ressenti aurait un impact sur l’attitude des enfants à l’égard de l’apprentissage du romani de l’école. La réponse est à chercher dans le propos de l’enseignante de romani qui est particulièrement révélateur à ce sujet :

Et par exemple quand on fait les jours de la semaine / on a appris à la formation que tous les jours / de lundi à dimanche / se disent d’une autre façon (qu’il existe un mot spécifique en romani) / pourtant / ils ne l’acceptent pas / ils le disent de même façon comme en serbe / de lundi à dimanche / ils ne disent que lundi « kurko » / pareil

Chercheure : pourquoi ils se rebellent ? Est-ce que tu peux me dire ?

Danijela : parce qu’ils disent « Madame / ce n’est pas NOTRE langue / nous / on ne parle pas comme ça »

L’étrangeté ressentie n’aboutit pas seulement à la non-identification au romani de l’école, mais aussi à son refus. Il est toutefois intéressant de remarquer que Courthiade (1995, p. 23), en se référant au romani standard, avance que sa pratique doit engendrer le sentiment de cohésion et de l’affection pour la langue maternelle et l’identité. Même si Courthiade parle ici du romani standard international, les familles ne se reconnaissent pas dans le romani standardisé au niveau national, c’est-à-dire en Serbie. Toutefois, la question est de savoir comment l’enseignante de romani se positionne face à une telle attitude de la part des enfants.

Adaptation au romani des enfants : vers la survie de la classe de romani

La perception et les réactions des enfants en classe sont loin d’être sans impact sur les pratiques de l’enseignante de romani. Cette dernière a recours à la politique d’adaptation aux parlers des élèves et ce, pour plusieurs raisons. Attardons-nous un instant sur le propos de Danijela pour comprendre sa décision.

[…] quand il y a quelque chose en gurbet / je leur traduis en leur parler ou je leur demande « comment dites-vous ? » et je m’adapte alors à eux / pour qu’ils comprennent ce que l’on fait / car si je faisais comme je le pense et comme on a appris lors de ce séminaire / les élèves ne comprendraient alors rien et alors ils ne s’inscriraient peut-être pas en romani, car leurs parents diraient « qu’est-ce que vous apprenez là-bas ? c’est pourquoi je dois les consulter / comme je l’ai déjà dit / m’adapter au dialecte qu’ils parlent [il est important de souligner ici que l’enseignante se réfère au dialecte gurbet parce qu’elle considère que le romani n’est pas standardisé et qu’à l’école, c’est ce dialecte qui est enseigné; pourtant, lors de la formation des enseignants de romani, les candidats ont appris, et ont passé un examen sur la connaissance du romani standard (information tirée de l’entretien avec Samir)]

Ce pan de discours est très intéressant, car il met en lumière une autre facette de la problématique du romani standard et de ses parlers. En effet, son choix de privilégier les parlers des élèves ne relève pas seulement de la dimension pédagogique, mais d’un souci de compréhension et de familiarité quant au contenu proposé en classe. Il s’agit aussi de susciter l’intérêt des enfants et des parents pour l’enseignement de cette langue. L’écart perçu entre romani standard et ses parlers par les familles et les enfants roms pourrait entraîner le désintérêt de ces derniers pour la matière « romani avec des éléments de culture nationale ». Par ailleurs, le menace de la stabilité de cette dernière aurait un impact direct sur la stabilité de l’emploi de l’enseignante de romani. Le statut du romani avec des éléments de culture national étant facultatif et optionnel nécessite un vif intérêt de la population rom pour assurer sa pérénnité. Pourtant, Danijela a recours à la politique d’adaptation aux parlers qui exclut le romani standard non seulement parce que les parents et les enfants ne se reconnaissent pas dans le romani de l’école, mais aussi parce que son effectif de cours pourrait être en jeu. L’extrait ci-dessous est encore plus limpide à ce sujet : 

Chercheure : oui oui / qu’est-ce qu’ils pensent de ce dialecte ? disons / qu’est-ce qu’ils pensent de la langue qui est enseignée à l’école / les parents ?

Danijela : BEN ILS pensent que ce n’est pas le romani… ILS pensent que ce n’est pas le romani / ILS PENSENT / je ne sais pas / ils disent « ce n’est pas le romani / tu ne les apprends pas comme il faut… » et voilà}

Chercheure : oui oui

Danijela : c’est pourquoi j’adapte tout pour eux (les enfants) et par exemple quand on travaille sur les noms / je leur dis en serbe / ils me traduisent en romani / et j’écris comme ils disent / car par exemple « un verre » on dit « taxtaj » (en romani standard) / et eux ils disent « čaša » (comme en serbe)

Le sentiment de l’extranéité des parents et des enfants roms envers le romani de l’école, le refus des enfants de la langue standard, et la crainte d’une perte d’emploi définissent la politique pratiquée de l’enseignante en classe de romani en faveur des parlers romani.

Conclusion

Dans cet article, nous avons tenté d’identifier le rapport entre les politiques du CNMR et celles pratiquées en classe en se focalisant notamment sur l’analyse des interactions et des discours des élèves et de l’enseignante de romani dans une école primaire en Serbie. Cette approche nous a permis de relever des tensions existantes entre les politiques du CNMR et celles pratiquées en classe. En effet, le choix d’enseignement exclusif du romani standard du CNMR est modelé par  les idéologies nationalistes et de ce que le  standard devrait être. En revanche, l’enseignante de romani adopte la politique d’adaptation aux parlers des enfants tout en marginalisant le romani standard. Son attitude est influencée non seulement par la non identification des parents et des enfants au romani de l’école et le refus des enfants à l’employer, mais aussi par la crainte de l’enseignante de perdre son emploi. 

Cette étude de terrain suggère que la résistance des parents et des enfants roms à la politique linguistique du CNMR en matière d’éducation requiert plus d’attention par le biais de recherches approfondies qui se penchent sur leur réalité en tant qu’usagers de la langue. En effet, comme le remarque Glyn Lewis (cité par Baker, 2006, p. 211), il s’avère indispensable de connaître le ressenti de la population rom face à la forme standard pour la formulation et le succès de la politique linguistique. Puisque notre recherche se focalise sur une étude de cas, nous ne sommes pas en mesure de généraliser le rapport de la politique du CNMR et des pratiques d’enseignement dans les écoles primaires en Serbie. Il sera alors nécessaire de mener une enquête plus approfondie dans d’autres régions de la Serbie, notamment où la population rom parle le dialecte gurbet. De plus, il serait judicieux d’inclure les parents dans l’enquête, ces derniers étant les acteurs importants dans le choix de cette matière, afin de saisir de plus près leur ressenti sur le romani standard et son enseignement.

Néanmoins, les résultats de notre recherche nous permettent d’envisager une piste possible pour remédier aux tensions entre le romani standard et ses parlers. Il s’agit de l’adoption d’une démarche inclusive des langues qui consiste en un tissage des liens entre les langues, la norme et ses variations. Auger (2007, p. 151) parle d’une didactique de l’écart dont l’objectif serait de « mettre en proximité » la langue de l’école qui serait au centre, en tant que langue de référence, et les variations qui gravitent autour de ce centre. Cette prise en compte des variétés en classe ne s’avère bénéfique que sur le plan d’apprentissage (cf. Auger 2007, 2010 ; Cummins, 2001). Il pourrait aussi permettre la reconnaissance, la valorisation et l’acceptation des enfants et de leurs parlers par l’école, mais également de susciter leur intérêt pour l’apprentissage du romani standard. 

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Notes en fin de texte

1. Cette loi est disponible en ligne: http://www.parlament.gov.rs/upload/archive/files/lat/pdf/predlozi_zakona/1325-18%20-%20Lat..pdf

2. La loi sur les Conseils nationaux Disponible en ligne : https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/zakon_o_nacionalnim_savetima_nacionalnih_manjina.html

3. « Jezik Roma je sačuvao samu njihovu bit, njihovu filozofiju, religiju, kulturu, njihovo poreklo, njihovu istoriju. Sačuvao stil i način što ih čini tako autentičnim. Samo reč i ništa više. Kakvu je snagu imao taj jezik da nadomesti sve druge fundamentalne kategorije koije jednu zajednicu, jednu grupu ljudi čine narodom. (…) Jezik je značajan za Rome, jer je definicija za priznavanje njihovog identiteta » (Koko, Djurić et Courthiade, 2017 : 6).

4. Dans le système éducatif serbe, l’école primaire dure huit ans. L’enseignement primaire est partagé en deux cycles : le premier cycle de la 1ère à la 4e classe et le deuxième cycle de la 5e à la 8e.

Vol. 6(1) Editorial

Produced from within the Pandemic: The Power of Scholarly Publishing to Help Us Weather Adversity

Mela Sarkar, McGill University

This special issue of J-BILD has been a long time in the hatching. A full two years ago, in November 2019, we were busy planning LPP2020, a conference that was to have been held in late August 2020. We were, at that time, looking at the different possible sites at or near McGill University in Montreal that helpful people had found for us. Distance from campus, capacity of rooms, availability of catering—those were the immediate concerns of myself and Angelica Galante, who was to have been conference-co-chair.

But, as readers will know, in March 2020 any possibility of holding the “Multidisciplinary Approaches in Language Policy and Planning” conference in person at McGill receded into a distant and uncertain future, and was unceremoniously cut short before that summer, when public health directives, the McGill policies that devolved from them, and basic common sense dictated that we move the conference online—a major change that meant we had to cancel the 2020 edition of the conference, and take the time we needed to plan a completely virtual conference in 2021 instead, co-chaired by new team Mela Sarkar and Amir Kalan with the support of dozens of volunteers from BILD and from all over the world.

Over a hundred authors of abstracts for the cancelled 2020 conference were invited to defer to August 2021, which most of them did. We also invited them to send review-ready papers based on their conference abstracts to J-BILD, for consideration in a special issue devoted to papers that would have been presented at LPP2020 if we hadn’t had to cancel that year’s conference altogether.

You are reading the happy result—an unexpected piece of positive fallout from what has been a very difficult period, lasting nearly two years now, not just for us here at BILD, J-BILD and the LPP organizing team, but in fact for all of humanity. This is the fifth issue of J-BILD to appear during the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. It will not be the last. But we are learning how to support each other through these pandemic times, not least through scholarly publishing as an act of collective solidarity, in the face of challenges that might once have seemed insurmountable.

When we were able to speak to LPP2021 conference attendees about J-BILD at a special online session during the conference itself, Alison Crump, J-BILD Senior Managing Editor, and Mela Sarkar, Senior Advisor, found that the LPP2021 audience was gratifyingly interested in our open-access, online approach to scholarly publishing, and to the non-anonymized peer mentor model we espouse. We are receiving more submissions than ever, as what we take to be a direct result of our newly raised profile. The journal that started as a gleam in the eye of a few members of the BILD research community back in 2017 is coming into its own.

Of the five articles in this special issue, four were also presented as conference papers at LPP2021. We are very pleased that we were able to offer all the authors accepted to the cancelled LPP2020 conference the opportunity to be published in J-BILD as well as the chance to present their work at the online conference in 2021; we are delighted that so many of them took us up on both offers, to the extent that a double special issue was warranted. The story of the would-have-been LPP2020 conference papers will therefore be continued in the next issue of J-BILD.

This issue reflects the diversity and breadth of scholarship that we feel characterize both the LPP conference and the authors and readers of J-BILD. You will read about children, adolescents, and adults grappling with complex issues of belonging, identity, and language in places as diverse as Bangladesh, Japan, Mexico, Serbia, and the Korean north-eastern part of China. The next LPP-themed issue will take you to even more corners of our unpredictable and changing world, and will come your way in 2022.

Stay safe and well until then, J-BILD readers.

ARTICLE SUMMARIES

Research Studies

Marija Apostolovic takes us into the heart of her native Serbia in “Parlers romani et romani standard à l’école : tensions entre politique officielle et politique en classe,” where we meet a classroom of children belonging to the Rom minority, and learn that they have a confident and outspoken sense of agency about the non-standard variety of the Romani language they speak, despite the presence in their classroom of a teacher and a curriculum reflecting a different, top-down view of this recently standardized language. We learn about the language-ideological debates current among Romani-speaking Serbian educators. Marija offers a detailed and sympathetic portrait of the classroom, the teachers and the children, in a context that is likely to be new to many of our readers.

In “‘Multi’ as a Strategic Tool for Better Transition: Plurilingualism at an Ethnic Korean High School in China,” Meilan Ehlert takes us to the Korean autonomous region of north-east China, where she spent four years working with high school students who move fluidly between Korean, Mandarin Chinese and English as part of their trajectory through adolescence in this plurilingual part of the world’s most populous nation. As a trilingual Korean-Chinese-English insider, Meilan is able to interpret the language choices of these youngsters with perceptive insight. Their voices come through clearly in this detailed research report of a painstaking longitudinal study.

A continuing collaboration among three scholars with close connections to Mexico, Dana K. Nelson, Jesahe Herrera Ruano and Jesús H. K. Zepeda Huerta, gives us “Linguistic Trajectories and FLP: Return Migrant Families in Mexico.” We delve into the histories and family language policies of three young people who have moved back and forth between Mexico and the United States over the course of a couple of decades; the relative importance of Spanish and English in their linguistic repertoires changes in correspondingly complex ways. The authors portray the dynamics of these three transnational families within the context of Mexico-US immigration and return migration with understanding and compassion, showing how important it is for researchers into family language policy to look at individuals and families close up and in carefully contextualized detail.

In the only article in this issue that was not, in the event, also presented as a paper at LPP2021, “Ideological formation process of a Japanese college student: A case study,” Mitsuyo Sakamoto and Mitsunori Takakuwa show us how one Japanese college student in Tokyo changed her attitudes over time, as she learned about intercultural issues and different varieties of English over the course of her university program. This in-depth case study makes it possible for readers to gain insight into the thought processes of one individual young Japanese who came a long way in her ability to see English(es) in a more nuanced, globalized context.

Critical Literature Review

Shaila Shams, in “Nation, Religion and Language Ideology: The Case of Postcolonial Bangladesh,” reviews a wide range of historical and ideological literature on the ways languages have been used and perceived in pre- and post-independence Bangladesh. From her current perspective in Vancouver, she is able to step back from her home country and inform us about current language-ideological debates, not only in Bangladesh itself but also in diasporic communities of Bangladeshis who have migrated elsewhere, especially to Canada. The situation is complex: several varieties of Bengali—including a standard literary language to which not all have access—co-exist in Bangladesh; in addition, Arabic, as the language of religion, and English, as an important language of power, both compete with Bengali in the public space, and in the hearts and on the tongues of Bangladeshis at home and abroad. Shaila navigates this terrain with ease and skill for her readers, opening a window into a fascinating sociolinguistic area that may not be as familiar to some J-BILD readers.

The Complexity of International Student Identity

Wei Liu, University of Alberta

Andy Rathbone, University of Alberta

Abstract: Complexity Theory is a revolutionary research paradigm that emphasizes holism, uncertainty and nonlinearity, and de-emphasizes reductionism, predictability and linearity (Grobman, 2005). This critical literature review applies Complexity Theory to the area of student development, arguing that Complexity Theory is a fruitful theoretical lens to examine the complex issue of cross-cultural identity construction of international students. From this theoretical lens, international student identity should be seen as an open system that is fluid and emergent in nature, and educators should contribute to an additive international student identity that embraces multiple languages and cultures. A perpetual state of discomfort due to the development of a narrative identity should be encouraged as a cross-cultural strategy conducive to international students’ continuous learning.

Résumé: La théorie de la complexité a été un paradigme de recherche révolutionnaire qui souligne l’holisme, l’incertitude et la non-linéarité et désaccentue le réductionnisme, la prévisibilité et la linéarité (Grobman, 2005).  Cet examen critique de la littérature applique la théorie de la complexité au domaine du développement des étudiants, en faisant valoir que la théorie de la complexité est un point de vue théorique fructueuse pour examiner la question complexe de la construction de l’identité interculturelle des étudiants internationaux (EIs).  Dans ce point de vue théorique, l’identité du EI doit être vue comme un système ouvert qui est fluide et de nature émergente, et les éducateurs doivent contribuer à une identité additive de les EI qui englobe plusieurs langues et cultures. Un état d’inconfort perpétuel dû au développement d’une identité narrative doit être encouragé comme une stratégie interculturelle approprié pour l’apprentissage continu des EI.

Keywords: Complexity Theory, international students, identity, narrative identity, care.

Introduction

There were over 5.3 million international students around the world as of 2017, up from 2 million in 2000 (UNESCO, 2020). Away from home, international students face many common challenges, such as language barriers, financial difficulties, cultural adjustment, and an uncertain future (Khanal & Gaulee, 2019). They need to adjust to new social and learning environments that pose difficulties related to different learning expectations, a sense of non-belonging, and even mental health issues (Hale et al., 2020). At a deeper level, the intercultural learning experience of international students is both transitional and transformational, and necessitates identity change to a greater or lesser extent (Gu, et al., 2010). The ability to successfully manage one’s identity reconstruction in the international education context is a necessary cross-cultural competence for international students and scholars (Deardoff, 2006). Helping international students successfully navigate the cross-cultural identity reconstruction process is an important dimension of international student education in host universities and countries.

What is the role of international educators in this regard? What attitudes should educators adopt and what approaches should they take in order to contribute in a constructive way to identity reconstruction for international students? In this critical review paper, we first discuss different definitions of identity in the context of international education from diverse perspectives, which serve to show that cross-cultural identity reconstruction is a potentially challenging and even painful process. We then critique the unidirectional, ethnocentric, and acculturational discourse commonly found in international student education practices as part of a harmful postcolonial paradigm that works to perpetuate the current inequitable world structure. Based on a review of the highly complex nature of international student identity, we endeavor to develop a new philosophy of international student education and development, drawing on insights from Complexity Theory as it relates to narrative identity.

An effective critical review presents, analyses, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature from diverse sources with the goal of generating new knowledge about a topic in the form of a new model, a new framework, or a new perspective (Grant & Bootht, 2009; Torraco, 2005). We cast a wide net in this review of the theoretical literature on identity in the context of international student education by including both older, classical works and more recent publications. The collaboration of an international educator and an educational philosopher with a common interest in Complexity Theory allowed us each to tap relevantly into the literature in our respective fields. Without claiming to aggregate and synthesize all available literature in an explicitly structured way, a critical review focuses on the conceptual values of relevant literature to provide new insights on the chosen topic (Grant & Bootht, 2009). In other words, it is supposed to purposefully and critically select the most relevant works in relation to the topic. We decided to include the works in this study based on their contribution to the construction of the three pillars of Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology as they evolve around Complexity Theory as a new philosophical paradigm for understanding international student identity. Pedagogy is added as a pillar to demonstrate how the new paradigm applies to international student education on the ground. The paper does not claim to be an endpoint in the discussion of the issue of international student identity. Instead, it hopes to start a new phase of conceptual understanding of international student development informed by a radically different philosophical perspective from the dated one still prevalently used today.

Identity Reconstruction For International Students

In the area of student development, identity is often understood as students’ secure and comfortable conception of who they are as autonomous, independent individuals (Checkering, 1969). Words like “autonomous” and “independent” emphasize the agency students have over their own identity choices, agency which is advocated for in this paper. Words like “secure” and “comfortable” signify stagnation in student learning and development, a concept which is questioned in this paper. One’s identity can also be defined as a person’s personally held beliefs about self in relation to social groups and the ways one expresses that relationship (Torres et al., 2009). We prefer this definition, as it does not suggest an end state of “secure and comfortable” self. Instead, defining identity as personal beliefs of self suggests its potentially fluid nature. It also suggests the relational nature of self, including the position of group membership in one’s identity construction.

From a poststructuralist perspective, identity has been seen in the light of “how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future” (Norton, 2000, p.5). This definition further strengthens the complex, subjective, fluid, and relational nature of our identity, which resonates strongly with the theme of this paper. From a psychological perspective, identity reconstruction is typically seen as the result of perceived disequilibrium or dissonance between the current self and a possible self (see Marcia, 2002). Environmental changes, such as international traveling and sojourning, create opportunities and conditions for identity reconstruction (see e.g. Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The intercultural learning experience has the potential to bring about profound changes in overseas students’ self-perception, transforming their understanding of the learning experience, self-knowledge, awareness of the other, values, and worldview (Gill, 2007). Cross-cultural identity reconstruction can be said to be an important aspect of intercultural learning for international students as they have to ask deep questions about who they are in new cross-cultural contexts.

The reconstruction of self-identity coincides with a process of leaving the comfortable world of self and encountering and interacting with the cultural other (Gill, 2007), and within such an intersubjective space, it is an imperative for international students to re-examine self in relation to new cultural and social groups (Bruner, 1996). Psychological disequilibrium in cross-cultural identity shift can be understood as the psychological discomfort experienced by people who have moved out of their cultural comfort zone. Such discomfort can be small to some individuals, but can be nerve-breaking to others. As the phrase “culture shock”, a phrase commonly used to characterize the cross-cultural experience, indicates, identity change is a potentially confusing, challenging, and even painful journey—so much so that research from the 1950s to 1980s often saw it as a mental health issue (see Ward et al., 2001). A better understanding of the nature of international student identity change and reconstruction is needed to better assist them in this challenging aspect of their international learning journey.

Acculturation As An Approach To International Student Education

International student mobility is influenced by “push and pull” factors (Altbach, 1998). International students are “pushed” by unfavourable conditions at home, and “pulled” by more favourable conditions host countries offer. As a result, the direction of movement of the world’s international students tends to be away from developing countries towards industrialized western countries (Altbach, 1998). Asian students represent 53% of all international students enrolled worldwide, mostly from China and India;  of that, 83% study in G20 countries and 77% in OECD countries (OECD, 2020). Similar to the direction of mobility, the cross-cultural transition of international students has been historically conceptualized as a unidirectional and unidimensional journey. As they acquire the values, beliefs, and cultural behaviors of the host country, they are expected to discard those of their home country (Schwartz et al., 2010). It is this acculturational approach to international student education and development that we take issue with in this paper.

The most dominant paradigm in work with international students today is still an ethnocentric one (Davis, 2011). It positions the host country language and culture as the superior centre, and the acquisition of the host language and culture is believed to hold the potential to elevate international students into first-class world citizenship (Lin & Liu, 2019). Under the influence of this unidimensional discourse,

It is fair to say that the international student education/service in most English-speaking countries still focuses on students’ acculturation, adjustment, adaptation, and integration into the host university, changing their previous habits in learning or living to fit into the new academic environment. (Liu & Lin, 2016, p. 357)

The acculturation perspective reinforces the marginalization of non-western national identities and cultures. The path of international students has been seen as a one-way path. But what alternative theoretical paradigm can take the place of such a postcolonialist stance on international education and better serve the cross-cultural development of international students? This paper is an attempt to address this question.

The complexity of international student identity

In the 1980s, a dual dimensional approach was introduced in cross-cultural research, upon the realization that the newcomers’ acquisition of host country culture does not necessarily require the abandonment of their home culture (Berry, 1980; Schwartz, et.al, 2010). In Berry’s (1980) multicultural model, host culture acquisition and heritage culture retention are seen as two independent dimensions. The two dimensions intersect to create four cross-cultural strategies for new immigrants: assimilation (adopting the receiving culture and discarding the heritage culture), separation (rejecting the receiving culture and retaining the heritage culture), integration (adopting the receiving culture and retaining the heritage culture), and marginalization (rejecting both the heritage and receiving cultures). Of Berry’s four categories, integration is thought to be the most beneficial strategy in securing the newcomers’ social and psychological wellbeing. Though it is an improvement on the unidimensional model, Berry’s dual-dimensional model has been criticized.

One important limitation is that it adopts a “one size fits all” approach, and thus has failed to consider many other contextual factors–such as type of migrant, the countries of origin and settlement, the socioeconomic status and resources, the ethnic group in question—and their fluency in the language of the country of settlement (Rudmin, 2003). Such factors are highly individualized and their combinations are potentially impossible to exhaust in studies that hope to pin down the patterns of change for all international students as a uniform group. Recognizing this complexity, Schwartz et.al (2010) believe that, although it has been clear that something is assumed to change as newcomers adapt to life in the host cultural context, “exactly what that something is has been difficult to pin down” (p. 240). The experience of each newcomer is so diverse and complex that it can be seen as a cross-cultural black box. Any attempt to simplify or reduce such diversity and complexity to a few finite options is futile. Any attempt to conceptualize international student identity development in fixed, linear, and temporal phases (e.g., Eunyoung, 2012) is limiting and potentially harmful. A broader theoretical lens is needed to allow international educators to understand the complexity of the identity development processes of international students.

International student identity as a complex open system: The ontology

To replace the dated acculturational approach to international student identity development, this paper proposes the adoption of Complexity Theory as an alternative philosophical framework on this issue. Complexity Theory is a breakaway from the Newtonian view of the “clockwork universe”, in which the society is seen as a rational, closed, controllable, and deterministic system (Morrison, 2008). Instead, Complexity Theory emphasizes holism, uncertainty, and nonlinearity, and de-emphasizes reductionism, predictability, and linearity (Grobman, 2005). It acknowledges life as a complex system. “Life is complicated. It is simplifying but dangerous to have one overriding concern that makes others unimportant.” (Bateson, 1994, p.106) Complexity Theory embraces the irrational, open, uncontrollable, and fluid nature of the human condition, as “(f)luidity and discontinuity are central to the reality in which we live” (Bateson, 1989, p. 13). The theory sounds complex and even messy, but it is at the same time liberating and empowering, as there are multiple paths for one to follow.

Relating complexity to identity, Hall (1992) believes that there are three competing conceptions of self: the enlightened self, the social self, and the postmodern self. The enlightened self is the innate, core self-identity, which moves along a linear trajectory of development. We can see that the enlightened self does not honour the complex and fluid nature of identity. Different from the enlightened self, the social self is seen as the result of interaction and mediation between self and social context. One’s social self identity is defined by group membership, and positive self-esteem relies on a sense of belonging to a community. The third, postmodern self is an identity that is not fixed but fluid, dynamic, evolving, and performative in nature (Josselson, 1996). The social self and the postmodern self interact to make identity construction a highly complex process. According to Carr (1986),

[…] the social world consists of pre-established social roles and ongoing stories not of my making […]. Human existence is to be understood as a matter of assuming and acting out the parts determined by the already existing repertoire of roles, finding oneself caught up in already ongoing stories—including one’s own life story. (p.84).

One is born into a family and a society not of their choosing. In this sense, one is assigned social roles and a set of social relationships, and there is a certain expectation that one lives up to these roles and maintains these relationships. When students travel to another country to study, they get in touch with new social groups in the host country. In other words, their lives become more intersectional (Dill & Zambrana, 2009), assuming more memberships and playing an increasing number of roles in addition to the roles they have had before. Such increased intersectionality of roles in different cultural settings creates social identity complexity (Roccas & Brewer, 2002), the effect of people holding memberships in multiple social groups whose values are not fully convergent or overlapping. In this sense, social interaction choices are central to the formation of the mind and the self, as “(i)t is through our varying degrees of involvement with different social groups that we are able to carve out a sense of individual identity” (Grimshaw & Sears, 2008, p. 265). One international student from India is quoted by Gu et. al. (2010) as saying,

[…] when you go to another country and study and you meet people from other countries, then it opens up your perspective and you realise that everything in the world is not the same … You are so torn between being yourself and what they want you to do—what others want you to do. (p. 19)

What the student is experiencing here is something we often call an “identity crisis,” and that crisis results from identity options, particularly when there are tensions between these options. We need to stress here the issue of language in the international student identity reconstruction process. In the social turn of second language research (Block, 2003), language learning is seen as a social practice and a socialization process. One who is short of native-like proficiency in the language of the host society, which is often the case for international students, tends to suffer from a “reduced personality” and the identity of “being a half-wit” (Harder, 1980). According to Bourdieu (1977), language has symbolic power, and such power is distributed unevenly. In Liu’s (2014) autobiographical account of his ESL learning experience, he recalls:

The high status of English in China turned into my inner motive to acquire an identity as someone who speaks English well. However, at a more advanced competency level, I experienced a crisis of identity split between my English identity and my native Chinese identity, especially after becoming aware of an unequivocal postcolonial linguistic discourse that positions the two languages differently. (p. 264)

Due to the close connection between national language and national identity, one may experience tension between their native language and the target language they are acquiring, as different languages carry different value systems and representational powers.

The poststructural perspective views identity as a site of struggle influenced by unequal power relations (Norton, 2000). Some identity options are more valued than others in the dominant discourse. For international students, integration by acculturating to the host country standard and speaking the host country language at the level of first language proficiency is often held above all other identity options. However, international students are not totally at the mercy of external structure and conditions. According to Weedon (1987), one has agency to negotiate a relationship with the social community. Similarly, Norton (1997) believes that one can exert agency by making different levels of investment in acquiring a new language and thus the new cultural identity that is tied to the new language. Along the same line of thinking, Ricoeur (1992) suggests that we are like characters in a story, aiming towards a better life through change in words and action. The identity negotiation and reconstruction process is the process of “self-organization” (Montuori, 2003), self-adjusting and evolving in response to disequilibrium presented by changing environments.

There is a tension here between social determinism and human agency. This is the tension between the postcolonial condition that perpetuates unfair power structures and the postmodern condition that supports individual agency in identity choice. The social self and the postmodern self intersect dynamically to make an international student’s identity extremely complex. It is an intercultural imperative to see international student identity in cross-cultural transition as a complex system due to the increased layers of challenges in their experiences, such as cross-cultural transition and second language acquisition. The system is subject to structure-agency dialectic tension and the different levels of involvement with different social groups as a result of exerted self-agency and choice. For complexity theorists, each learner is a non-linear, organic, open, and emergent system that involves constant change, evolution, adaptation, and development. According to Osberg (2005),

[i]f we want to shape human subjectivity in a way that is not linear or deterministic, then we cannot assume we know (once and for all) what or who we are dealing with at the outset, and we cannot have a pre-set goal (an idea of what this person should become) […]. From this perspective, if we try to shape human subjectivity in a predetermined way, we obstruct the emergence of human subjectivity. (p. 82)

One important note we need to add here is that students should have their own personal goals, and educators should play a role in showing them the options and encouraging them to pursue higher ones, but educators are not in a position to impose on their students a goal of their determination, no matter how good the intention is.

International student narratives as identities to live by: The epistemology

If the ontology of international identity is an open, fluid, and complex system that emerges through self-organization and self-authorship (Baxter Magolda, 2001) in response to dynamic social conditions, how do we go about studying it? Ricoeur (1992) points out that our identity is narrative in nature, and thus our identity is our narrative identity. Ricoeur describes narrative identity as the ability to recognize that our story is changing and that we have some control over that change through our interpretations and actions. Different from the grand narrative (see Lyotard, 1976), which is considered fixed and consistent in nature, Ricoeur’s narrative identity views identity as self-interpretation and stresses “self-hood” over “sameness” within its potential for change. “It is through our own narratives that we principally construct a version of ourselves in the world, and it is through its narrative that a culture provides models of identity and agency to its members” (Bruner, 1996, p. xiv). According to Bruner (2004), our narratives are a continuing interpretation and reinterpretation of our experience. In this sense, identity is a self-constructive entity and should be studied as such. 

It is through stories that people create coherence of meaning in life; identity is thus people’s stories to live by (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). As Husserl suggested (in Keybe, 1991), life is linked through a continuous series of temporal pretentions (projections of a future) and retentions (consciousness of the immediate past), which add density and cohesion to the ongoing present. Thus, identity has both the quality of change and continuity, and it connects the past, the present, and the social context into a narrative that makes sense (Josselson, 1996). Ultimately, identity is the result of a personal meaning-making process, and the best way to look into an international students’ identity and its process of transformation is nothing other than sitting down and hearing their stories about their own lives. Authenticity is thus a personal entity, as the ontology is not what actually happened, but the meaning one makes out of their lived experiences and the self-identity constructed based on such an ongoing personal sense-making process.

Kegan (1994) proposes four types of knowing, and the four types of knowing can be understood as four strategies to deal with the complexity of modern life: (1) Absolute knowing, where facts are information that are right or wrong, and knowing is having information; (2) Transitional knowing, where students begin to see uncertainty in some areas of knowing; (3) Independent knowing, which is understanding as relative to the individual; and (4) Contextual knowing, which becomes self-authorship, where students combine various points of view into their own, using their knowledge to test its validity. Transitional knowing, independent knowing, and contextual knowing are important strategies to recommend to international students in interpreting and reinterpreting their life experiences as stories. A narrative approach needs to fully respect the uniqueness of each student’s life experiences, which are under the influence of a unique set of multiple and nuanced contextual factors, such as source country culture, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic background, target language proficiency, and prior cross-cultural experiences. A narrative approach should also respect the agency and subjectivity of the individual student in the perception of their life contexts, their chosen course(s) of action, and their future aspirations.

Stories have educative potential for identity development and action (Sarbin, 2004). Human experience is moulded by narratives; the stories we tell shape the way we experience the world (Crities, 1971). “Just as art imitates life […], life imitates art. Narrative imitates life, life imitates narrative” (Bruner, 2004, p. 692). For this reason, the exercise of having international students tell and retell their cross-cultural stories contributes to their transformational identity construction/reconstruction. As an epistemological approach, narratology best suits that complex, open, and fluid nature of international student identity construction and transformation. International students’ cross-cultural identity is a result of their constant reflections on their cross-cultural experiences as stories. And yet narrative identity is an identity with perpetual disequilibrium (Osberg, 2005), and thus, in helping students develop a narrative cross-cultural identity through reflection, we will need to prepare them for a perpetual state of discomfort.

Encouraging a perpetual optimal distance: The pedagogy

Successful reconfiguration of international student identity requires the successful management of diverse issues— surrounding language learning, social interaction, personal development, and academic outcomes—and the availability of differentiated and timely support in the process (Gu et al., 2010). Guidance in identity evolution management should be an important part of educators’ job to mediate the international education journey. What advice from the educators would be most beneficial in relation to international students’ identity negotiation and reconstruction? As students are open systems—fluid and evolving with open-ended outcomes—what educators can do is build an encouraging, warm, and interactive learning environment, rich in learning resources and support—an environment referred to by Osberg (2005) as “a space of emergence.” In this sense, educators need to participate in and contribute to the shaping of students’ narrative identity in an extremely flexible and responsive way, in accordance with the current moment and current space; teaching and learning are products of the emerging situation. In other words, education should be seen as generative (Jorg, 2011). Each student in this space of radical contingency is a completely unique and singular individual, and the educators’ job is to give support to the emergence of individual identities of their own choosing (Kumaravadivelu, 2008; Osberg, 2005). Educators should strive to create opportunities/spaces for students to see the potential of their learning within the complex and open systems in which they exist.

Earlier language learning research has shown that when learners perceive themselves to be too close or too distant from either their home country culture or host country culture, they tend to be poor language learners (Acton, 1979), and when language learners are very advanced in their language learning and too assimilated into the target culture, they tend to experience anomie, a feeling of social uncertainty, or even alienation (Lambert, 1967). Liu (2014) describes it as an intercultural identity split. For the above reasons, Brown (1980) believes that there should be an optimal distance that learners keep from the target culture. That is to say, to maximize one’s potential, a student has to stay in an eternal state of discomfort and uncertainty. Feeling uncomfortable is fundamental for improving performance, enhancing creativity, and deepening learning (Dennis, 2022). One does not learn much in a comfort zone. One also stops learning when they settle into a new comfort zone. Patterns in complex systems emerge, change, and re-emerge constantly. If one wants to embrace complexity and maximize learning opportunities, they need to acquire the skills of an action researcher, constantly collecting evidence, reflecting on actions, and revising the course of action. This is not to say that international students are doomed to live in cultural limbo. Instead, what is stressed here is that educators should encourage a balanced bilingual, bicultural identity—an identity that retains one’s home culture while acquiring the new language and culture. Such an additive identity, which includes newly-acquired cross-lingual and cross-cultural competences,  empowers learners with the desired fluidity to survive and thrive in both cultures and in-between.

Embracing an additive, fluid identity allows international students to move between different cultural spaces and not be stuck in any one. It offers the freedom and competence to function in their home culture, their host culture, and any “Third Space” hybrid culture (Bhabha, 2004) between the two. The acquisition of such cross-cultural competence within an additive, fluid identity makes an individual’s international education experience a truly liberating, empowering, and transformative one. In essence, the educational goal of identity reconstruction for international students is not to settle into a new, secure, and comfortable self. Research in Applied Linguistics has shown that there is no end state in second language learning and becoming too comfortable with the target language results in language acquisition fossilization (see Ellis, 1994). Similarly, there should be no end state in second cultural learning, and becoming too comfortable within the host culture likely results in a cultural learning plateau. International students should be made aware of this and be encouraged to benefit from such a perpetual state of discomfort and tension. To maximize the learning outcome of cross-cultural experiences for international students, we, as educators, must recognize the open, emergent, fluid, additive and, most of all, narrative nature of their cultural identity, and we must create space and encourage students to constantly reflect on their evolving experiences as new stories to live by. Helping them get comfortable is not an ideal goal.

Altruistic care in pragmatic identity expression: The ethical consideration

One’s behaviour is not informed by one singular identity alone, but by multiple identities intersected (e.g., Jones, 1997). We all possess multifaceted personalities, and we reveal different facets, depending on the context (Goffman, 1990). As discussed above, the desired goal for cross-cultural identity (re-)construction is not one singular assimilated identity, but additive intersectional identities that are emergent and fluid. According to Holliday et al. (2004), culture should be viewed as a resource, and multicultural individuals can selectively draw on a collection of symbols and behaviours in order to achieve a particular purpose in a particular setting, like playing a pack of different identity cards to manage their impression on different interlocutors. In a similar fashion, Molinsky (2013) believes that one needs to develop competence in “cross-cultural code switching,” the ability to modify behaviour in specific situations to accommodate varying cultural norms. By learning to “switch” behaviours, they can adapt more successfully to another country’s value system in international business endeavours.

According to the above liberal and pragmatic view, international students’ narrative identity can be expressed through multiple selves, pragmatically foregrounded as social capital when interacting with different interlocutors in different social and cultural contexts. That is to say, one of an individual’s multiple cultural identities may become salient in a response to a given cultural context. But this may create an ethical dilemma. Molinsky (2013) points out that one may experience the authenticity challenge while adapting behaviour across cultures, including anxiety, distress, and even guilt as a result of the disingenuous feeling that the new behaviour is in conflict with their internalized system of cultural values and beliefs. How does one stay true to themself when engaged in behavioural code switching in order to navigate the “culture map” (Meyer, 2014)? Does such pragmatism threaten one’s ethical integrity? What are the rules of this card game of identity (Holliday et al, 2004), as all card games need to follow rules? Noddings (1984) believes that care should be the foundation for ethical decision making in education. According to Ricoeur (1998), care is the most important driving force in the formation of narrative identity. Thus, the pragmatic fluidity of narrative identities should be employed with utmost altruistic care. The ethics of care should be the foundation of international students’ pragmatic identity expression. 

Why should we care for others? Do we have the duty and obligation to care for others? There have been many philosophical discussions on the rationale for the ethical practice of care. Based on Goodin’s (1985) vulnerability theory, we have moral obligations to help fellow strangers in the same way we would our family and friends, as they are just as vulnerable to our actions. Baier’s (1985) dependency theory suggests that the normative grounds of care ethics come from the fact that we have been, are, and will be dependent on others, and thus we have the duty to care. Baier’s (1997) fairness principle posits that all of us have the responsibility to contribute our fair share to the maintenance of a cooperative society that we all benefit from. According to Gewirth’s (1978) generic consistency principle, if we aspire for individual freedom and well-being, we must logically recognize the right of others to freedom and well-being. Engster (2005) synthesized all the above perspectives and proposed the principle of consistent dependency. Since we depend upon the caring of others to sustain not only our own lives but also human life, we must logically recognize the rights of others to care and endeavour to provide it.

In Durkheim’s (1947) concept of Organic Solidarity, social bonds function in two ways: either through a valuing of difference, or through a valuing of similarity. Organic solidarity is based upon the valuing of difference, believing in the power of difference and the empowerment of altruism. We only have power in concert with others. As we regulate ourselves, others give us more freedom, thereby allowing us to take on greater responsibility. Thus, the valuing of difference and the altruist empowerment of others should be instilled in students as an ethical bottomline of self-regulatory behaviour in their strategic expression of a fluid identity. According to Ricoeur (1998), it is through caring for self as well as for others that people realize their imagined potential and good life. Through organic solidarity, the students’ aspiration for self personal improvement and the societal need for good global citizenship are united and achieved together. Altruistic care should be the base line and the fundamental principle in international students’ pragmatic use of their multicultural competences and identities.

What is the role of educators in fostering a sense of altruistic care in international students? The goal would be to have them uphold the moral standard of utmost altruist care for others when pragmatically playing their multiple identity cards and refrain from purposeful deception or manipulation. In other words, the ethic of care should be part of their narrative identity constructed so as to help bring a psychological and ethical peace to the multiple selves.  Ethical internationalization in higher education should not simply capitalize on the opportunities of worldwide student mobility brought by the globalized world; instead it should take the responsibility to resist the ill effects of neoliberalism by constructing a truly fair and sensible international community in the world and by educating truly globally aware and globally responsible students as future global citizens. Social justice and equality is the most fundamental principle in global education in the sense that the betterment of our lives should not come at the price of others’ worsening (Wringe, 1999). It is the educators’ responsibility to help students develop the knowledge, values, attitudes and skills to aspire and fight for a better and more equitable world for everyone (Ibrahim, 2005). An ethical connection evolves as they come to reflect upon how others are implicated by their actions and how others are a part of their narrative identity (Ricoeur, 1998). In this context, the self becomes self-organizing and at the same time connected to the world. Care for others, in addition to self-care, should be scaffolded into students’ narrative construction of their cross-cultural identity.

Conclusion

Personal change and perspective transformation are key components of international students’ intercultural experiences. Conceptualizing the development of international student identity construction within a finite number of options and directions fails to credit the complexity of the phenomenon and the agency students have in life choices. Thus, international student identity is best taken as a complex open system that is fluid and narrative in nature. Only when an international student’s identity is perceived as a fluid open process can educators recognize their potential to imagine a better life, a desired cultural self, and a transformative cross-cultural learning experience. In a multicultural social context, a student is given the agency and thus has to take the responsibility for her own identity transformation and reconstruction. Complexity Theory is a broader theoretical lens through which to study the identity of international students; it allows recognition of the complexity of cross-cultural learning contexts and the agency that individuals have in negotiating their multiple identities. 

Educators can help international students recognize the emerging patterns of self-development in relation to others in the ever-changing world. They can instil in students a willingness and resilience to live in and learn from a perpetual state of discomfort and change in order to maximize their cross-cultural learning experiences. But of course, doing so does not mean that educators shall leave students unsupported, nor shall it create another one-way street of expectations for international students. As was argued above, the educators’ role is to create a generative environment and to contribute to students’ additive identity development. Valuing students’ individuality, educators’ caring engagement in students’ narrative identity reconstruction could offset some degree of the discomfort and messiness of being in a complex world. In coming to know themselves better as intercultural persons, students can become stronger and less uncertain. Educators are also welcome to engage in their own narrative reflections on their experiences working with international students as an approach to professional development (Lin & Liu, 2019). International educators are also an open system, and should consider and be encouraged to constantly reflect on their practices in order to continually learn and grow as devoted, mindful, and caring professionals in international education.

On a larger scale, the transition from Acculturation to Complexity as a theoretical lens in the discussion of international student identity development and transformation should be seen as a purposeful ideological shift in our understanding of the kind of world we hope to live in. Underlying the Acculturation stance is the postcolonialist world structure with a Western centre and non-Western periphery. The Acculturation approach to international student development also serves to encourage and perpetuate the advantages of the centre and the disadvantage of the periphery. As the above analysis demonstrates, the acculturation approach is reductive and unidirectional, and is thus an unhelpful approach both at the personal and societal levels. By applying Complexity Theory to international student identity, we are imagining a different world structure embedded in postmodernist conditions. With the new conditions, international students who move from the non-Western periphery to the Western centre for better-quality higher education opportunities are seen as embarking on the path to becoming, not new members of the elite Western centre, but global citizens with global experience, global awareness, and global competence. Equipped with cross-cultural fluidity and multiple cultural identities, they have the potential to be sensible world leaders with an ethical sense of duty and altruistic care, working to build a fairer and more equitable world. In this sense, international education would not be a process of the diffusion of Western values, but a process of diffusion of universal values of care, justice, freedom, and peace.

Acknowledgement

We would like to acknowledge the strong support we received during the peer mentoring process. We appreciate Dr. Alison Crump’s decision to enter the paper into the peer mentoring process; we appreciate Dr. Roswita Dressler’s rigorous mentoring which served to consolidate and refine every idea; we appreciate Ms Lauren Strachan’s strong editing skills and her detail-oriented copy editing which helped strengthen every word, phrase and sentence.

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Persianate Selves: Memories of Place and Origin before Nationalism

Irena Grigoryan, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey

Kia, M. (2020). [Review of the book Persianate Selves: Memories of Place and Origin before Nationalism, by Mana Kia]. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 336. 

Mana Kia’s (2020) book, Persianate Selves: Memories of Place and Origin before Nationalism, is a fascinating historical journey into the Persianate world, spanning across geographies of West, Central, and South Asia. It explores the Persianate selfhood before the rise of nationalism by historicising and redefining the meaning of place and origin, expressed in a broader range of possibilities of collective affiliation than modern nationalist frames allow. Addressing the period just before the rise of modern nationalism in Iran and Hindustan, the book’s temporal span lies between the fall of the Safavid Empire in 1722 and the British policy abolishing Persian as the language of instruction in the Indian subcontinent in 1835.

During the High Persianate period (14 to 19th centuries), Persian was the transregional language of power and learning that produced “shared literary tropes, interpretive paradigms and representational forms” (Kia, 2000, p. 9). Mana Kia explores her subject through a major signifier of being Persian – adab – a proper aesthetic and ethical form of thinking, speaking, and acting, and thus of perceiving, desiring, and experiencing. Adab is acquired or “accrued” (Kia, 2000, p. 102) through education in a corpus of Persian language texts – poetry, storytelling, philosophy, religious instruction, commemoration, etc. As Persians were from many lands, religions, occupations and social classes, the proper form of adab enabled them to cohere with their selves and collectivities, place and origin in a limitless, indeterminate, permeable way. Mana Kia calls this relation aporetic, suggesting historicization and reassessment of the mutually exclusive categories of place, origin, and selfhood, that are reinforced by “impoverished conceptual means” (Kia, 2000, p. 25) of modern scholarship. Counter positioning to a certain scholarly outlook, she suggests thinking of geographical place, identity, and language not as excluding and self-contained categories, but as outward-looking and porous ones.

The book has seven chapters divided into two sections. The central premise of the first section is the modes of Persianate place-making. It starts with lexicographic discussions on a range of meanings that define the place in the Persianate world, from objective understandings of geographical place to more subjective, affective renderings. The second chapter discusses how remembering the past constitutes both character of the place and morally justified hierarchy between places. It reflects upon the attribution of affective meanings to places, such as paradisical qualities or expressing exilic longing (ghurbat) or nostalgia about the place. The third chapter looks at the illustrative effects of meaning-making (topographic, representational accounts). It explores certain recognised features of a place that act as indicators of legibility and cast morally justified hierarchy among places. Some of such features explored in the commemorative texts are urbanity, ornaments, educated men, and just rule in the places.

The second section of the book examines the meaning and function of origin among Persians between Iran and India. What was considered an origin for the Persianate is unintelligible through the categories of modernity: Persianate origin was gradual, accrued and transmitted through lineages “that were transregionally constituted, circulating and intelligible” (Kia, 2000, p. 25). Chapter 4 argues that the form of Persianate origin was lineage, where geographic place constituted an itinerary along the diversity of meaningful connections and where homelands were just one (not always dominant) element of origin. The 5th chapter is about kinship without ethnicity, which takes on a question of social collective or collective lineage, arguing that “modern notions of identity are not epistemologically equipped to contain certain historical logics” (Kia, 2000, p. 126) of adab and socially regulated relationships. Building upon the notion of kinship, the following chapter considers how affiliations were marked through naming practises. The final segment of the book turns to practises of commemoration – particularly tazkirih writing – their proliferation and possibilities to articulate selves and collectives of Persianate adab.

The intertextual method in which Mana Kia walks into the subject is the remarkable strength of the book: she brings together various texts of separate genres under a constellation of, what she calls, commemorative texts. Those are transregionally circulated well-known and lesser-known texts written in Iran and India – memoirs, poetry, histories, travel narrative, tazkirihs (biographical compendia), autobiographies, chronicles. These texts are intertextually related and share similar modes of meaning-making about selfhood, place and origin. Through close and comparative readings – a method that Mana Kia calls critical philological engagement – she brings to life these historical texts as outcomes of Persianate mobility and testimonies of a shared cultural symbiosis. By allowing the commemorative texts to speak for themselves, she carefully breaks beyond the core of the established vocabulary when describing phenomena relevant to modern theoretical discussions on nationality, identity, belonging and related subjects. For instance, she avoids using the word “ethnicity” in favour of social collective or collective lineage; or uses the term “geographically transplanted” for persons we would nowadays call migrants. Through this, the book successfully opens a space and prepares a ground for some useful concepts, such as cultural continuum, graduation, accrued identifications, geocultural landscapes, etc. By this contribution of an indirect effort, the book advances the importance of thinking in more expansive terms when it comes to the scholarship on places, subjectivities, belonging, diversity and, indeed, human mobility. It also invites the reader’s attention to historical, literary texts as sources to explore intricate relationships between identity, language, and space in the contemporary world. Simultaneously, the book features many untranslated terms (e,g, madaniyat or tamaddun) whenever it is important to keep the original context.

One of the conceptual threads that started in the book but got abandoned in the context was the connection of the Persianate self with the modern Iranian identity or vice versa. Picking up on the Iranianness in the opening paragraphs, the author presents an intimate familial scene of the celebration of a Persian new year with the readings of Hafiz’s poems as an “enduring remnant” (Kia, 2000, p. 2) of Persian identity. Being an immigrant in the US, the author remembers choosing to be identified as Persian – an identity described as pride-inducing, but at the same time distancing, separating, superior from Iranianness. It would be valuable to see the continuity, connection, or mutual exclusion, of Iranianness and Persianness more elaborated throughout the book. Such an attempt would aptly contribute to the book’s argument by providing more insight about the urge of (dis)identification with a certain self and the process of (un)belonging to a certain identity as experienced by the author. 

Perhaps the book or its future renderings could also address the limitations or exclusions of being Persianate. Though the author briefly addresses “modest men” (Kia, 2000, p. 114), women, and other identities parochial to the Persianate, the main corpus of the evidence represents educated men of upper to middle class and their form of adab. This distinction means that certain forms of collectivities are more celebrated in the hierarchy of the Persianate world than the others, but the latter are not quite addressed in the book.

Mana Kia’s book is a rich and multilayered contribution to the scholarship that addresses questions of cosmopolitanism and hybridity, the possibilities of selves and collectives, the relevance of place and origin in the language ideologies, and the cultural and linguistic meanings people endow to physical spaces. The book could be of particular interest to scholars broadly engaged in the study of cultural and social history, but also in the study of human and object mobility and cultural exchange. The book’s methodological implications go far beyond the history of the early modern period and the Iranian/Middle Eastern studies, as well as far beyond the nationalist narratives. It seeks to methodologically extend beyond the old time-space-language compression and embrace the idea of non-ethnocentric, non-placeable, continuous cultural selves. The book itself is a beautiful ode to symbiosis, lineage and learning in the making of a cultural self.

Student Identity in the Indian University: Language and Educational Stereotypes in Higher Education

Jessica Sujata Chandras, Wake Forest University

Abstract: This article explores how language ideologies and the use of different languages in colleges and universities in Pune, a city in the western Indian state of Maharashtra, create ways to categorize and stereotype student identities based on language proficiency, caste, rurality, and religious background. Through ethnographic and sociolinguistic methods of participant observations and interviews at two prestigious Pune higher education institutions, I describe multilingual classroom discourse along with perceptions and reflections on language use. The analysis is as much about identity formation in higher education as it is about the education system’s orientation towards Anglo-centric scholarship in India. In Pune’s higher education, formal recognition of ways Marathi and Hindi assist students in English medium education are largely overlooked and unstandardized. In conclusion, this article demonstrates how multilingual education addresses diversity and inclusion in theory, but in practice, many students confront additional obstacles through language policies that impede their educational aspirations.

Résumé: Cet article explore la manière dont les idéologies linguistiques et l’utilisation de différentes langues dans les collèges et universités de Pune, une ville de l’État du Maharashtra, dans l’ouest de l’Inde, conduisent à la catégorisation et à la stéréotypisation des identités des étudiants en fonction de leurs compétences linguistiques, de leur caste, de leur origine rurale et de leur appartenance religieuse. En m’appuyant sur des méthodes ethnographiques et sociolinguistiques d’observation et d’interview d’étudiants et d’enseignants de deux prestigieuses institutions d’enseignement supérieur de Pune, je décris l’ensemble des discours tels qu’ils se manifestent dans des salles de classe plurilingues ainsi que les perceptions et les réflexions de ces mêmes étudiants et enseignants sur l’usage linguistique. L’analyse porte autant sur la formation identitaire dans les milieux d’enseignement supérieur que sur une orientation du système éducatif en Inde qui privilégie une approche centrée sur l’anglais. Actuellement, dans les milieux d’enseignement supérieur à Pune, la reconnaissance formelle des façons dont le recours au marathi et à l’hindi par certains étudiants dans des institutions de langue anglaise est largement négligée et non standardisée. En conclusion, cet article montre bien que, même si elle aborde en théorie la diversité et l’inclusion, l’éducation plurilingue continue de faire en sorte que de nombreux étudiants sont confrontés à davantage d’obstacles découlant des politiques linguistiques mises en place.

Keywords: identity, language ideology, multilingualism, higher education.

Introduction

This article explores how language ideologies and the use of different languages in higher education classrooms in Pune, the second-largest city in the western Indian state of Maharashtra, creates ways to categorize and stereotype student identities based on language proficiency, caste, and socioeconomic backgrounds. I use theories of language ideologies (Gal, 2005; Woolard, 1992; Woolard & Schieffelin, 1994) and identity formation (Bucholtz & Hall, 2005; Gal & Irvine, 2019; Kroskrity, 2000) to contextualize language use in Indian higher education as critical for the production of linguistic identities. My goal is to illuminate the ways these languages are currently used and associated with student identities. In doing so, this article is as much about identity formation at work, through classroom discourse in higher education, as it is about the higher education systems’ orientation towards Anglo-centric scholarship.

Language In The Indian University

In the current education system in Pune, formal recognition of ways that Marathi and Hindi assist students in English medium higher education, or classroom settings where English is the language of instruction, are largely overlooked and unstandardized. As demonstrated in this article, there is a disconnect in the ways that multilingual education addresses diversity and inclusion in theory but not in practice. Many students confront additional obstacles through language policies that have negative impacts on their ability to succeed academically. The evidence thus suggests a need for formalizing the productive roles of students’ multilingual language practices in college and university classrooms and a recognition of ways the current educational structures categorize and produce stereotypes of student identities.

Historical Context of Language in Education in India

The British colonial period provided fertile ground for English language educational pedagogies due to opportunities for Indians to work and study, providing they could confirm to British ideals in education and occupation. However, during the late colonial period, Mohandas K. Gandhi addressed audiences from 1916-1928 over English linguistic colonization in education. He called for education in vernacular languages stating, “The question of vernaculars as media of instruction is of national importance,” by criticizing how “English educated Indians are the sole custodians of public and patriotic work [and the] neglect of the vernaculars means national suicide” (1922, p. 307). Nevertheless, English remains an important language in the subcontinent and current policies about language.Higher education in India has adapted to contemporary situations and conditions but are no less extensions of a deeply ingrained British colonial educational ethos where the English language remains key (Bhattacharya, 2017; Kachru, 1983; LaDousa, 2010; 2014).

While current trends in English medium education stem from a colonial precedent, liberalization of India’s economy in the 1990s made way for education in English to be part of India’s stake in a competitive global market (Lukose, 2009; Pennycook, 2006; Proctor, 2014). As the state-run university education system grew and more subsets of Indian society had access to higher education, issues around the instructional languages in these institutions grew as well. It is common to hear opinions that an English language higher education provides a linguistic common ground for students across the country and a window to globally positioned scholarship and occupations. Today, English in India is a language of globalization, a lingua franca connecting the country, and an Indian language among other regional languages (Chandras, 2020; Kachru et al., 2009; Pattanayak, 1981). Despite the long history of the English language in India, a great divide in opinion and policy remains over how different languages are used or sanctioned in higher education. The exploration of language in higher education outlined here shows that student identities are pigeonholed along a singular language, while almost all students are multilingual with multifaceted identities and various definitions of academic success. Moreover, this stereotyping along linguistic identities occurs within a hierarchy of languages in higher education and through ideologies held about language and educational success.

Theoretical Framework

Socializing Language Ideologies

In multilingual settings, language indexes various aspects of identities (Schieffelin et al., 1998; Woolard, 1998) and language ideologies play a role in the indexical process (Blommaert, 1999; Lee & Su, 2019). Speakers attribute meaning to languages and individuals, to connect identities to speakers through “language ideologies” which reveal motivations and behavioral organization as a “mediating link between social forms and forms of talk” (Woolard, 1998, p. 3). Additionally, language ideologies reflect politically charged, purposeful, and directed ways of using language as well as representing shared beliefs about language (Blommaert, 1999). Therefore, viewing identity as a social construction and as part of belonging to social groups indicates that individual’s awareness of themselves and their authorship of social contexts and conditions are “contextually situated and ideologically informed” (Bucholtz & Hall, 2005, p. 605). Identity as located in the social aspects of community belonging indicates that one’s identity is less “a matter of innate characteristics and more […] a process involving socialization in early childhood into socially-constructed ways of being, or learned ‘roles’” (Preece, 2009, p. 28). People hold and act upon these attitudes about languages, or language ideologies, which produce and perpetuate inequalities in society constructed around how language use relates and maps onto other categories of identities (Vivanco, 2018).

Multilingual Classroom Discourse Defining Linguistic Identities

Studies of multilingual classrooms and discourse management explore how language ideologies and language use affects an overall view of students and a construction of student identities (De Costa, 2016; Paris, 2013). A “linguistic identity” then contributes to student identity in how well a student meets the expectations of education as set by the academic institution and, in this case, language is a major factor in academic success (Bartlett, 2007; Bartlett & Garcia, 2011; De Costa, 2016). A structure of success is defined by the institution rather than by students or individual teachers and is a process of standardization of education and educational institutions. The institutional model at these colleges and universities in Pune favors students with high English fluency. Therefore, academic identities of successful students are ones that also claim high English fluency as part of their linguistic identities.

A linguistic identity defines the ways teachers interact and treat students based on their linguistic backgrounds in the higher educational setting (De Costa, 2016; De Kock et al, 2018; Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004). While De Kock et al (2018) define linguistic identities as creating cohesive social groups, I extend this notion to explore dissonances of social cohesion in pedagogy that stereotypes student identities. Language ideologies that emerge through discourse in multilingual classrooms define not only the linguistic identities of students but  also shape avenues for academic success. Therefore, the following questions guide this analysis: How are classroom interactions in higher education organized around student linguistic identities and what defines student linguistic identities in these interactional spaces?

Methodology

Research Sites

Data for this article comes from ethnographic research through participant interviews and observations in 90-minute, multilingual lectures (Hindi, Marathi, and English) at one state university and one college in Pune, Maharashtra (see Table 1 below). Savitribai Phule Pune University, referred to from here on as Pune University, was established in 1949 and is the city’s largest and most prestigious university. The university has forty-six departments and roughly 14,500 students spread across Bachelors, Masters, and PhD degree programs. Affiliated with Pune University, Fergusson College was founded in 1885. Both a junior and a senior college where students earn Bachelor degrees, Fergusson College has about 4,500 students across 29 disciplines. Like Pune University, Fergusson College is ranked highly for the arts and science education it offers. These two higher education institutions have policies that exams and assignments can be completed in either Marathi or English.

InstitutionPune UniversityFergusson College
Hours ObservedThree hours/week for 2016-2017 academic year and two months in 2018Three hours/week for six months in 2016-2017
Locations Observed90-minute lectures in Anthropology, English, Sociology, Physics departments90-minute lectures in Sociology and Political Science departments, Sociology student club, 60-minute club meetings
Interview Sample25 hours of interviews, six professors and ten students, recruited through snowball sampling with written and verbal informed consent15 hours of interviews, three professors and five students, recruited through snowball sampling with written and verbal informed consent

Table 1: Data Collected

Data Collected

Participant observations and interviews are the primary data sources for this study. Interviews I conducted and lectures in which I collected observational data required a high level of comprehension, attention, and active participation and took place in both English and Marathi. The native Marathi-speaking students in classes at Pune University who come from rural Maharashtra have low English proficiency as well as some of the students at the university from European and Middle Eastern countries. Indian students from urban centers in Maharashtra and those from outside the state at Fergusson College and Pune University have high levels of English fluency and most have also attended English-medium schools. All the Indian students speak and understand at least a colloquial level of Hindi. Upon arriving at these institutions, students expect their classes to be in English, especially since almost all written material at the university is in English.

Data Analysis Procedures

In terms of data analysis, I searched my observational notes and interview transcripts for topics relating to language ideology and identity, and coded instances in the collection of data where teachers and students classified behavior by belonging to a linguistic community and practices where translation was used and explicitly noted. Then, I organized these results according to teacher interventions and student experiences to define language connected to socioeconomic class and identity assumptions as stereotypes. These categories include instances of language negotiation interactions in classrooms that defined students by their language proficiency levels in English and Marathi and statements about student identities in relation to their linguistic upbringings and educational backgrounds. Based on the coding of my observation notes, I read the interview transcripts for common themes. These included attitudes about students that grouped them according to their linguistic strengths in English or Marathi, and in terms of the linguistic ideologies driving pedagogy and teachers’ interactions with students. Key themes that emerged were teacher interventions, perceptions, and student reflections of the impacts of classroom interactions on language ideologies to define linguistic identities and identity stereotypes by language.

Results

Teachers

Professors across departments at both Fergusson College and Pune University are astutely aware of students’ linguistic and educational backgrounds and use different languages when addressing students with different language backgrounds. Of the nine professors I spoke with across the two schools, all could give me detailed accounts of where each of their students were from, the language medium of their educational backgrounds, and what languages they were most comfortable using. Elaborated below, teachers’ attitudes towards the Marathi-speaking student populations, framed in part to the professor’s language ideologies about Marathi, politicize rural student identities.

Perceptions

Professor Pandhe (all names are pseudonyms), the head of the sociology department at Pune University, explained the classroom as a political space where, “Students who speak Marathi sometimes insist upon using it rather than using it out of necessity.” In her experience, “The village students are very militant about their use of Marathi and how they demand an education in Marathi. They demand to pass just for showing up in Marathi, like they should be treated specially for representing a Marathi-speaking population.” Similarly, another professor in the sociology department, Professor Chanda-Apte, noted that, “Marathi is an identity issue and some students feel targeted because they are rural Maharashtrian,” and went on to explain that in her experience, students may feel that they have been given a bad grade or are asked to work with another student because of their mother tongue.

Interventions

As my interviews with professors revealed instances of changing classroom practices allowing for more inclusive multilingual interaction in classrooms, each professor made allowances for Marathi in different ways. Professor Chanda-Apte explains how she incorporates multilingual educational policies in her teaching:

Depending on their language strengths, some students will ask questions in Marathi and some do so in English. I am often at a loss for how to grade exams and assignments when they are submitted in Marathi and in different levels of English. Students’ low English levels can obscure the fact that they may be uncertain of exam material where the quality of work differs greatly among students who have a strong command of English, the students who do not, and the students who write in Marathi even though most of their materials and sources are in English. As a result, most students attempt exams in English. This offers students a chance to gauge their level of English and some students with poor English also feel that professors will be lenient with their grades and favor their attempt at using English over the quality of their English. Also, due to the differences between Roman and Devanagari scripts used for English and Marathi, it is a challenge to standardize page or word limits on assignments because the scripts drastically change the amount of information that can be provided.

Professor Chanda-Apte detailed to me how she implements multilingual pedagogy in her lectures to motivate and evaluate students’ academic attitudes and performance. Professors feel they must teach in ways that build rapport with groups of students based on their linguistic backgrounds, which signal and index other aspects of their identities such as rurality, caste, and socioeconomic class. Linguistic practices therefore layer and indicate differences between identity categories as connected to politics, histories, and social positions (Gal & Irvine, 2019). Classroom cohesion, therefore, is divided along differentiations among linguistic identities, as also explored by De Kock et al (2018). While rules that allow students to complete exams and assignments in Marathi are intended to make evaluation processes easier for students with limited English skills, it often adds an extra challenge for students to mediate the language of material and the classroom to the language of exams. The efforts to provide access to information in different languages bring into question the purpose of translating materials and lectures into Marathi in the first place as the burden is then put on students to re-translate material into English for their evaluations and for teachers to develop two systems of evaluation.

Another mode of intervention used by professors was to adapt language norms to foster inclusivity. In an interview with sociology students, Mayank, Naina, and their teacher, Professor Majumdar at Fergusson College, explained how their language proficiencies and extracurricular activities are a bridge for the academic success of students who share their Marathi medium educational backgrounds without their added high proficiency in English. The two students organize sociology club events and are both Brahmins from semi-urban Marathi medium schools.

Naina: A year earlier we used to only use English at these events as students thought of them as extensions of lectures.

Professor Majumdar: Soon after, some Marathi-speaking students complained to me saying that they felt excluded and while they could not feel fully comfortable participating in classes due to a language barrier, they did not want to remain excluded from these extracurricular events as well. They felt their classmates who spoke English were also getting extra help and there was no extra help for the Marathi speakers, and they had a good point we had not considered. So I officially relaxed the English-only rule outside of class so that there was a conscious effort to use Marathi and Hindi at these meetings.

Mayank: More students began to come to meetings and participate.

While the purpose of the sociology club meetings at Fergusson College are to elaborate on and debate topics from lectures, participation falls along linguistic lines. These meetings are meant for linguistic inclusivity, the social rules that guide participation reproduce student identities within linguistic categories. Students take it upon themselves to organize extracurricular events outside the classroom such as discussions and film viewings that focus on classroom material.

Since the club is student-led and meetings take place outside classroom hours, students are explicitly encouraged to speak in any language they feel most comfortable using. Some students are extremely comfortable in English and due to learning class material in English or a desire to help improve other students’ English, these students continue a discussion of class topics outside of class in English. However, the club is intended for conversational involvement unlike a classroom lecture so most students use conversational Hindi. Hindi becomes the inclusive language at these events used to bring together the Maharashtrian and non-Maharashtrian Indian students in a more colloquial atmosphere. It is also important to note that all students (excluding foreign exchange students) are expected to know Hindi fluently, so teachers who make accommodations for Marathi to be used in their classrooms do not make similar allowances for Hindi. In these ways, Marathi use along with English is not smoothly integrated into the educational models and classroom discourse at the two prestigious institutions. The process Professor Chanda-Apte and Professor Majumdar describe above, divides students within single classrooms based on language and brings to the surface linguistic identity as the main identifying category for students.

Inadvertent Consequences and New Expectations

Professor Chanda-Apte’s attention to the linguistic abilities of her students created a norm for translation in her classes from English to Marathi. With the intention of all her students comprehending classroom material equally, she once spent an entire class organizing students into groups for presentations based on language proficiencies, to create groups with mixed linguistic abilities. The resulting presentations all started with students using English, followed by the second students who translated the English material into Marathi. The students joked with each other before presentations to, “Get ready to understand nothing but nod your head to pretend like you do!” The constant mixing and changing of languages takes a significant amount of class time and often requires great attention for students not proficient in all three languages to follow the lectures, often resulting in resigned frustration.

Despite Professor Chanda-Apte’s planning, students paid attention to the language that they understood best. The expectation for translation was demonstrated on various occasions. In one example, a student, who previously stated that she never pays attention when the teacher or her classmates speak in Marathi, mimed to me during one of the presentations by nudging the classmate sitting next her and saying, “Translation! Translation!” while snapping her fingers. These attitudes towards the multilingual policies in classrooms map onto an intersection of student identities who speak, or are known by their professors and peers by their linguistic identities, which contribute to language ideologies that index interactions categorizing identities (Blommaert, 1999; Lee & Su, 2019).

Student Reflections

Marathi in higher education is defined in discussions with professors as associated with students from non-Brahmin, low socioeconomic statuses and disadvantaged educational backgrounds, often from rural areas who generally struggle when adjusting to the urban academic culture in Pune. Associating Marathi proficiency with non-Brahmin students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds becomes a powerfully motivating ideology placed upon students who speak better Marathi than English.

Rakhee’s Caste and Urban Social Class

In an interview soon after my interview with Professor Majumdar and her students, I met with Rakhee, an alumna from Fergusson College. Rakhee is Brahmin and she attended a prestigious Marathi school in Pune, so while she has a Marathi medium education, she has a socially privileged urban Brahmin caste background, and a prestigious and comprehensive education similar to the pedagogical rigor she found at Fergusson. When I asked about her participation in college clubs before her graduation she described to me her thoughts on language use:

I remember feeling that those moments are important for me and other students from Marathi medium schools. When explicitly offered by other students and the teachers, I think a space to respond in Marathi makes us feel like we can participate as equals with the content of the discussions in our most comfortable language rather than preoccupying ourselves with what language to use and trying to use a language we are not as comfortable using.

These events reinscribe linguistic identities upon students based on the conscious effort to encourage the use of languages other than English. These extracurricular opportunities become spaces that extend the classroom whereby students fall into linguistically labeled categories, though with more freedom to converse. Rahkee continued in our conversation, detailing her thoughts on transitioning from a Marathi medium school to an English medium college:

I had a difficult transition to the school when I first started my studies at Fergusson. I felt like I did not have a lot of English vocabulary, even though I knew I had strong study skills and could understand concepts in class. But people seemed to give so much importance to English and not to understanding the concepts. When I could use Marathi I made sure to try and show I understood the ideas really well. Even when there is a small Marathi-speaking group, I feel it is necessary that the professor slips into Marathi now and then. Given the class-caste-rural/urban disparity reflected through the linguistic component, I feel that Marathi-speaking students should be treated as a group that needs special attention. So, using Marathi is double-edged.

Such moments create specific spaces for students to speak based on the language they feel most comfortable, while so doing clearly marks them with a Marathi linguistic identity and the assumptions or stereotypes that come along with being non-Brahmin, poor, and educationally disadvantaged. Her urban and caste privilege allowed her to adapt from a Marathi medium education more easily than some of her classmates to the English medium educational norms and structures, such as the use of translations explained earlier.

Balu’s Rural, Non-Brahmin Educational Challenges

Balu, a non-Brahmin sociology student at Fergusson College, is new to English-medium education and comes from an agricultural village east of Pune. He had stopped by the classroom to ask Professor Majumdar a question and joined our interview. The professor had just explained how students who previously study in Marathi choose the English medium stream at Fergusson because they want to learn English and this is the first opportunity for them to do so. Balu, being one of these students, explained the pressure he felt to learn English:

Balu: I study at least six hours a day to keep up because I am from a rural and Marathi-speaking background but I wanted to study in English. My whole first year [the level of] my English was so low. I was going to pay for a spoken English class. Instead, my friends helped me improve my English.

Professor Majumdar: These classes are exorbitantly priced and offered through many private institutions around the college here. They are intended for students like Balu who struggle with their English curricula.

Naina: Just a week before, I edited and made Balu re-write a Sociology paper about twelve times! I did it to help improve his English writing.

In this conversation about revisions, the focus was entirely on producing an essay in English, regardless of how well Balu grasped the content or could communicate it in Marathi. It was more an evaluation on English proficiency than about an understanding of sociological concepts. While Balu was getting help through the kindness of his classmates and professors, his language abilities were an insurmountable hindrance that was compounded with financial challenges, family obligations, and employment insecurity in his hometown. Balu left this program of study before completing his degree at the end of the 2017 academic year.

Vinay Resists a Rural, Non-Brahmin, Linguistic Identity

Vinay is a recent graduate of the Environmental Science MS degree program at Pune University. He was a strong student and top of his classes throughout his schooling in his rural hometown in central Maharashtra, until he began higher education. Like Balu, Vinay’s caste is non-Brahmin, he is also from a rural Maharashtrian background, and dropped out of his course of study and went home after his first year largely due to language pressures. Vinay recalled his emotional distress while making the decision to drop out of his classes:

I cried on the phone with my father after my first semester. In my classes students spoke Hindi and Marathi with each other but in my degree, the professor and materials were too challenging (in English). The only future I could see for myself was to return home to begin a career as a farmer like my father when I saw I failed three out of my four classes in my first semester, something I had never done before! It was too difficult to keep up in classes that were already conceptually challenging with the added pressure to use only English. In my hometown, Marathi is so prevalent that I also had to learn Hindi as an adult. The mix of English, Marathi, and Hindi in my classes at Pune University, and moving away from home with other social pressures were overwhelming!

Unlike Balu, Vinay eventually returned and completed his degree but not without securing support for learning English through friends and classmates. These efforts are ones Vinay decided to take on his own to ensure he improved his English. He, like many students, undertakes actions that go above and beyond the assistance provided institutionally, to not only learn English, but also to succeed educationally. Vinay’s improvement in English ultimately facilitated his educational success and completion of his degree. Vinay and Balu represent only two of the many students who are marginalized by their rural and non-Brahmin identities, which becomes a synonym for Marathi-speaking in higher education. This is due in part to the reserved admission spots for students from rural schools that make rural students’ identities more visible and politicized. This mix of rural and urban student backgrounds is unique to higher education in Pune as the city is a large hub for higher education in Maharashtra.

Mina’s Social Class Background

Mina is a Sociology Masters student at Pune University who said she has never felt marginalized at the university in Pune due to her Marathi medium background nor her non-Brahmin caste. She made friends easily with the foreign students and spoke English exclusively in class. Unlike Balu and Vinay, she attended schools in the urban center of Mumbai, about 300 kilometers west of Pune. She explained her transition to English medium education:

I think it was that my urban, middle-class upbringing prepared me to move to Pune for university. It is not too different from Mumbai. In terms of language, mixing languages in education is familiar to the style of speaking in many public spaces in Mumbai that I visited as a student anyways. I can speak with everyone, even the foreign students due to the English classes we had in my Marathi schooling. I also watch a lot of English television and films.

Her socialization and upbringing in middle-class urban settings, though non-Brahmin, are key factors that contribute to her comfort level at Pune University. Mina and her teachers do not tie her identity as closely to Marathi, because she grew up in Mumbai and quickly learned to speak English fluently. Although she attended Marathi-medium schools through her educational career until her MA at Pune University, Mina found that she easily adapted to using English for conversing and academics with the non-Marathi speakers in her classes. She is therefore able to position her identity among the English-medium educated students from urban backgrounds, rather than the students who typically identify by their Marathi-medium education from rural areas or non-Brahmin castes. Mina’s position as an English-speaking student allowed her more access to resources and cultural capital in her education and the more she used English over Marathi, the more she became identified based on her English-speaking ability and association to other students with English-speaking linguistic identities.

Unintended Consequences of Multilingual Practices

It becomes clear that students engage with material differently in different languages. In one example from a sociology club meeting with about fifteen students in attendance, students had taken turns presenting their views on a debate topic in English. Finally, the student leader during that meeting paused and said, in Marathi, “Now let’s hear from the Marathi students” who were all sitting to one side as a group, granting them space to speak based on language proficiency. The group of four Marathi students sat quietly, listening to the other students speak some Hindi and English, with no intention of contributing to the discussion prior to the student leader calling upon them to participate. When explicitly told to contribute to the discussion based on their language background, which had become their linguistic identities in class, two students provided their opinions on the topic in Marathi. Linguistic identities are therefore internalized by students as well. Statements from students and alumni who participated in this study show an acknowledgement that their student identities solidify around language use in educational interactions such as this one, which in turn affects the course of their studies.

Discussion

Language ideologies reflect politically charged, purposeful, and directed ways of using language, as well, as representing shared beliefs about language. In the examples provided above, language ideologies about Marathi shape professors’ views of students and their students’ identities.

Impact on Language Practices on Linguistic Identity

Key statements from interviews with teachers reveal how teachers structure class activities to balance the language strengths of students in addition to their overall thoughts and attitudes towards students with stronger Marathi language proficiency than English. In classrooms, teachers unofficially divide students into two categories based on their educational linguistic backgrounds: Marathi or English speakers. Analyzing language ideologies provides a key method of linking these micro-level observations of practices to macro-level systems and doing this allows for stronger consideration of political economic structures, power, social inequality, and constraints on language behavior (Woolard, 1998). Marathi speakers are assumed to be from rural, educationally disadvantaged backgrounds, which in turn reinforces Marathi use in classrooms to be conflated with educationally disadvantaged student identities. English, therefore, is associated with educational advancement (De Costa, 2016; Paris, 2013). 

The examples here show how language ideologies are created and perpetuated around the use of Marathi, English, and Hindi in higher education classrooms. In addition, this study shows how these ideologies play into identity construction on behalf of professors ascribing identities onto students (De Costa, 2016). Some non-Marathi speaking students showed a resigned frustration, as evidenced by student comments indicating an attitude of derision for the need to accommodate multiple languages in the classroom.

The structure of the multilingual educational policy alienates students and socializes translation rather than normalizing multilingual comprehension (Bartlett, 2007; Bartlett & Garcia, 2011). The non-Marathi speakers interpret the regular and expected translations from English into Marathi as an accommodation for Marathi-speakings students which squanders valuable class time. However, this can be juxtaposed with Marathi-speakers who disengage from the English portion of lectures and presentations as well. Studies have shown students attend to ways different languages signal different functions in classroom discourse (Probyn, 2009; Proctor, 2014). Therefore not all of the Marathi-speaking students remain attentive throughout English instruction, which is always the first language used in formal lectures and presentations. Only some of the students with limited English and strong Marathi attend to the English used in class due to socialization to English instruction or personal interest. However, the students without Marathi fluency do not approach the Marathi portions of lecture or presentations in the same way as a means to learn Marathi. The effect is that there appears to be two classes held simultaneously based on language— one in English and one in Marathi.

Linguistic Identities and Learner Experiences

Students coming to universities in Pune from rural backgrounds are often assumed to have an education that inadequately prepares them for the rigor of urban higher education. This persists as a stereotype of rural education and a pressure of liberalization and globalization in India (Kachru et al., 2009; Lukose, 2009; Proctor, 2014). A linguistically inclusive approach presents comprehension challenges to all students, requiring professors to identify students’ needs based on their language proficiencies, so they can teach towards students’ strengths for greater equality of information dissemination. Students’ attitudes and interactions show that during Marathi instruction, students comfortably fluent in English disengage. The result is often a stereotype conflating students from Marathi medium educational backgrounds with socioeconomic, non-Brahmin caste forms, and educational disadvantage (Pattanayak, 1981; Proctor, 2014). In multilingual settings where values are attributed to speakers’ different linguistic strengths, languages index inequalities between identity categories (Schieffelin et al., 1998; Woolard, 1998).

This study showed that teachers negotiate language strengths in the classroom, and how student identities become categorized based on dichotomies of urban versus rural, Brahmin versus non-Brahmin caste, and Marathi-speaking backgrounds. The three non-Brahmin students included in this study present a dynamic sample set of Marathi speaking student identities in higher education. Where Balu and Vinay are both from non-Brahmin rural backgrounds, they faced challenges in their abilities to adapt to the medium of English in higher education in an urban setting. The attitude about access, exposure, and socioeconomic status related to English relates to LaDousa’s (2010) and Lukose’s (2009) studies where rural backgrounds are often conflated with regional languages and relative rural poverty. The intersection of rurality and socioeconomic class contextually situated in urban higher education institutions produces and perpetuates the language ideology attached to Marathi-speaking students in these settings (Bucholtz and Hall, 2005). These connotations display an ideology of Marathi as a sort of deficiency or disability where speakers need special attention from a professor who can use the language when they feel a need to do so (Bartlett & Garcia, 2011).

Student attitudes of respecting allowances made for Marathi and students who prefer to speak Marathi in classrooms, demonstrates that higher education is not only for higher degrees and specialization, but for students like Balu and Vinay, it was the first time in their educational careers where they branched out of familiar settings— socially and linguistically. Mina found that it was a time to shape her identity along English medium educational forms, and she did this through aligning herself with the English-speaking foreign students and by using only English in her classes and assignments to excel in her studies (Bartlett, 2007). Coming from Mumbai, the large, urban state capital, Mina never faced the difficulties that Vinay and Balu faced as students from rural backgrounds. Her socioeconomic class from an urban setting intersected differently with her Marathi educational background. She effectively distanced herself from her Marathi medium background and differentiated herself from her classmates from rural backgrounds who speak primarily Marathi in class. Semi-urban and urban, Brahmin, Marathi-speaking students like Naina and Rakhee at Fergusson College, express that for higher education to be more inclusive and egalitarian, it should be necessary and accepted to appreciate and use Marathi in higher education. Although teachers and students in various departments in the two higher educational institutions know that they are to only use English, they “smuggle the vernacular into the classroom,” as there are institutional and ideological barriers to allowing for complete English medium classrooms (Probyn, 2009).

Implications

This study explores language ideologies based on language use in relation to pedagogy, identities, and power-structures in education. Ideologies surrounding Marathi in higher education organize students into hierarchical categories based on who the education works best for— those who can speak English as an academic and global language, and those who speak Marathi who need linguistic concessions to be made for their inclusion and participation in higher education. On top of the social adjustment students make from secondary school to colleges and universities, English is seen to be an academic language necessary for  success in higher education. Students who can conform to expected and accepted academic speech styles are then viewed as good and successful students. The structure of education set up by Maharashtra’s higher education system, and the informal roles Hindi, Marathi, and English play within the system, assign meanings to the languages and the assumptions tied to those languages, labeling students based on their language proficiencies. Since university students pay attention to moments when the professor speaks different languages or translates parts of the lectures, as a sign that the professor is speaking either to them or to another linguistic group, students and teachers have internalized which language applies to them, which shapes or pigeonholes student identities.

Having multilingual structures and well-intention teachers as educational policy is not enough. Inclusive language strategies benefit some students who are able to conform their identities in ways that intersect through class, caste, and language to the institutionalized spaces for Marathi in an English medium higher education system. Impacts of social class and caste as mediators of multilingualism in higher education categorizes student linguistic identities monolinguistically where a “Marathi” identity is stereotyped as a Hindu, rural, non-Brahmin, and educationally disenfranchised. This takes into consideration that the socially stratified caste systems in India place Brahmins at a position of privilege within education and other social spheres. Therefore, implementing multilingual policies for diversity and inclusion of educationally and linguistically marginalized students are more complicated when viewed in practice. Language becomes a contentious divider marking students based on caste and opportunities, facilitated through urban, middle-class backgrounds when teachers identify and categorize students by linguistic abilities and teach towards those abilities. Teachers need to be aware of how their perceptions of student linguistic identities affect pedagogy that impacts various groups of students differently, and be more critical of the power-structures aligned with intersections of identity categories that shape the backgrounds of their students.

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Promoting Inclusive Plurilingual Practices in Ontario’s Francophone Elementary Schools: The Views and Practices of Principals and Teachers

Francis Bangou, University of Ottawa

Carole Fleuret, University of Ottawa

Marie-Philip Mathieu, University of Ottawa

Bianca Jeanveaux, University of Ottawa

ABSTRACT

This article presents the results of a study that documented the ways principals and teachers in Ontario’s Francophone elementary schools viewed and addressed the linguistic diversity of students enrolled in the Actualisation linguistique en français (ALF) program. The ALF program was created in Ontario to support students with limited knowledge of French in acquiring the necessary linguistic and cultural knowledge to function successfully in mainstream classrooms. Although this program has been implemented with good intentions, one element of concern remains the overall space accorded to students’ first languages within the program. Using data from semi-structured interviews conducted with five principals and 11 teachers affiliated with the ALF program, it is shown that allophone students’ first languages remain relatively marginal within the participating schools.

RÉSUMÉ

Cet article présente les résultats d’une étude qui avait pour objectif de documenter comment les directions d’école et les membres du corps enseignant des écoles élémentaires francophones de l’Ontario percevaient et prenaient en compte la diversité linguistique des élèves inscrits au programme d’Actualisation linguistique en Français (ALF). Le programme ALF a été créé en Ontario pour aider les élèves ayant une connaissance limitée du français à acquérir les connaissances culturelles et linguistiques nécessaires à leur succès dans les classes régulières. Bien que ce programme ait été mis en œuvre avec de bonnes intentions, un élément préoccupant demeure l’espace accordé aux langues premières des élèves au sein de ce programme. À l’aide des données d’entrevues semi-dirigées menées auprès de cinq directions d’école et de 11 enseignants affiliés au programme ALF, il sera démontré que les langues premières des élèves allophones demeurent relativement marginales dans les écoles participantes.

Keywords: Allophone learners, actualisation linguistique, plurilingualism.

Introduction

According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Canada has one of the largest populations of immigrant students in the world (OECD, 2019). It is not surprising, then, that linguistic diversity is also rising in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2017). In 2016, 2.4% of Canadians reported more than one first language (L1), compared to 1.9% in 2011, which is a growth of 13.2%. Moreover, 19.4% of Canadians speak more than one language at home and seven in 10 people speak a language other than French or English at home (Statistics Canada, 2017). As such, an increasing number of students in Canada are considered allophone speakers, meaning they report an L1 other than French, English, or an Indigenous language (Cavanagh et al., 2016). This nationwide demographic and linguistic shift can be seen within francophone schools in Ontario, which forces school officials to clarify their directives and strategies pertaining to allophone students’ education and inclusion.

It is in this context that the Actualisation linguistique en français (ALF) program was created in 1994 to address the needs of students who attend francophone schools in Ontario but who are speakers of English or another language at home or who have limited knowledge of French. Specifically, the ALF program aims to support designated students in acquiring the necessary linguistic and cultural knowledge to function successfully in mainstream classrooms in Ontario’s francophone schools (Ministry of Education of Ontario [MEO], 2010). Usually, students who are assigned an ALF designation meet every day with a support teacher inside or outside the classroom. Where there are sufficient numbers of students with the ALF designation, they can be grouped in a sheltered class. Although this program has been implemented in francophone schools across Ontario with good intentions, one element of concern remains the ways students’ L1s are integrated within the classrooms (Fleuret, 2020; Fleuret & Thibeault, 2016).

With that in mind, this article presents the results of a study that examined how principals and teachers in Ontario’s francophone elementary schools viewed and addressed the linguistic diversity of students enrolled in the ALF program. It will be shown that more remains to be done to integrate allophone students’ L1s within the participating schools.

Supporting Allophone Students In Ontario’s Francophone Schools

Ontario, a predominantly English-speaking province, has more than 13 million people (Statistics Canada, 2016), 4.7% of whom are French-speaking (Gérin-Lajoie, 2020; Gérin-Lajoie & Jacquet, 2008), which makes Ontario the province with the largest population of francophones outside of Quebec (Gérin-Lajoie, 2020). Given the predominance of English within the province, French is considered a minority language that must be protected from anglicization. Indeed, the history of Ontario’s francophone population has been marked by a tradition of strong activism to protect and develop Franco-Ontarian identity, language, and culture (Gérin-Lajoie, 2020; Welch, 1995). It is only since 1982 that francophone speakers in Ontario have had the right to an education in French, thanks to section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982). This section grants the right to any Canadian to be educated in the minority language (French or English) of the province of residence, making this an important step forward in the legitimization of French-language education in English-speaking provinces. Ontario’s first francophone school board was created in 1986. In 2014-2015, Ontario had eight Catholic and four public francophone school boards, and 449 French-language schools (elementary and secondary) (Sylvestre & Lévesque, 2018). In this context, “French-only” policies within Ontario’s francophone schools could be considered as materializations of the desire to protect and promote Franco-Ontarian language and culture.

Combined with this reality is the fact that, over the past ten years, there has been an increase in the number of allophone students in French-language schools as a result of immigration (Cavanagh et al., 2016). For instance, in 2006-2007, the students enrolled in Ontario’s francophone elementary and secondary schools came from 143 countries (MEO, 2009a). Currently, 15% of Ontario’s francophone population is a visible minority (i.e., a person other than Aboriginal Peoples, who is non-Caucasian and non-white) (Commissariat aux services en français de l’Ontario, 2018, as cited in Gérin-Lajoie, 2020). As such, French-language schools can no longer be considered linguistically-, culturally-, or identity-homogeneous schools (Cavanagh, et al., 2016).

In response to the increase of allophone students in Ontario’s French-language schools, the MEO has implemented various policies to facilitate their inclusion and success. One of the most significant of these policies is the Politique d’aménagement linguistique (PAL), which was launched in 2004. The PAL confirms the dual mandate of Ontario’s francophone schools to ensure both student success and the vitality of Ontario’s French-language community (MEO, 2004). Specifically, the PAL aims to improve students’ academic performance, curb anglicization, promote bilingualism, consider young people’s views on identity, and open francophone language communities to cultural diversity. However, according to Bélanger (2007), the PAL positions Franco-Ontarians as victims of assimilation without taking into consideration the increasingly heterogeneous linguistic make-up in Ontario’s francophone schools. We are, then, witnessing the social reproduction of a dominant-dominated relationship between “born” Franco-Ontarians and allophone students (Fleuret et al., 2013). More recently, Gérin-Lajoie (2020) has argued that the PAL erroneously gives the impression that students’ francophone identities can only be developed at the expense of their bilingual, multilingual, and anglophone identities.

Another significant initiative came in 1994 with the implementation of the ALF and the Perfectionnement du français (PDF) programs. The program aims to enable allophone students to be successful in francophone schools in Ontario. The PDF program aimed to support francophone newcomer students in developing the necessary linguistic and cultural competencies to pursue studies in their new learning environments. In 2010, the PDF program became the Programme d’appui aux nouveaux arrivants (PANA). The PANA program is intended for students who recently migrated from a country where French is the language of education or administration, but who cannot immediately follow the regular curriculum for linguistic, cultural, or academic reasons (MEO, 2010). Schools have the option to adopt one of the two or both programs based on their needs. Because the ALF and PANA programs have similar and overlapping objectives, schools sometimes adopt only one of the two programs (Kamano, 2014). Moreover, Gélinas Proulx et al. (2014) have shown that, broadly speaking, educators in francophone schools in Ontario have yet to develop the intercultural competence that would enable them to properly address the ethnocultural, linguistic, and religious diversity present among the students in their schools.

Ontario’s francophone community has had to struggle against assimilation into the English-speaking population and has long resisted monolingual “English-only” policies (Bélanger, 2007; Cummins, 2000). Interestingly, similar “French-only” policies are in place in many francophone schools in Ontario, in part to protect the French language and culture within the walls of the schools (Fleuret et al., 2018). Unfortunately, within such a context, it becomes particularly challenging for teachers to acquire the skills that will enable them to embrace plurilingual and inclusive teaching practices (Fleuret et al., 2018).

Theoretical Framework

Inclusive Education

For many years, the popular belief in Ontario (and across the country) was that the best way to support students with specific needs was to place them in specialized programs segregated from mainstream classrooms (Bélanger, 2011). However, since the 1990s, a movement focused on a pedagogy of inclusion has gained popularity (Bélanger, 2011). Since that time, inclusive education aims not to ask students to adapt to the standards of the majority, but rather to encourage school stakeholders to value diversity and adapt their practices to diverse learning needs (Paré & Bélanger, 2014). The Ministry of Education of Ontario defines an inclusive educator as someone who accepts and respects all students, values diversity, and ensures that every student in Ontario is represented in the curriculum and within the school environment (MEO, 2009a). Accordingly, both principals and teachers play a critical role in establishing inclusive perspectives and practices within Ontario’s schools.

Overall, as leaders within schools, principals set the tone for implementing inclusive school culture and practices, and teachers are at the forefront of implementing inclusive teaching and learning practices within classrooms (McGhie et al., 2013; Schmidt & Venet, 2012). However, even though inclusion is officially advocated in Ontario’s schools, classroom practices do not always follow the principles of inclusive education. In that regard, Gérin-Lajoie (2020) finds that Ontario’s official discourse fails to recognize the challenges faced by allophone students, and it remains based on principles that essentialize francophone identities. For instance, the way that the PAL presents the process of identity construction suggests that this process only occurs when students develop a francophone identity (Gérin-Lajoie, 2020). This discourse, then, can be a barrier to the inclusion of students who construct an identity associated with French and other languages.

Students’ First Languages

The aforementioned struggles of Ontario’s French-speaking communities against assimilation have contributed to the emergence of the desire to protect the French language and culture and the implementation of monolingual and homogenizing discourses and practices in francophone schools in Ontario. However, these practices are detrimental to the development of allophone students’ L1. Indeed, research shows that bilingual children have an advantage over monolingual children in terms of metalinguistic consciousness, reading, and non-verbal cognitive activities (Bialystok, 2017). Further, Cummins (1979) found that literacy skills acquired in a L1 are transferable into a target language when learners’ competence in their L1 has reached a threshold level.

In addition to cognitive benefits, the legitimization of L1s in the classroom could have positive emotional effects on students because language is an important marker of identity (Fleuret & Auger, 2019). For example, when students’ L1s are used as a resource in the classroom, students feel less intimidated by the target language, and parents have a more positive view of the school. Moreover, learning a target language does not come at the expense of an L1, because both languages are valued and promoted (Castellotti & Moore, 2011). In that regard, integrating plurilingual teaching practices within Ontario’s francophone schools via the ALF program could be greatly beneficial to allophone students.

Plurilingual Approaches to Languages and Cultures

According to the Council of Europe (2001), plurilingual speakers are able to communicate and function at varying degrees in different languages and cultures. Therefore, plurilingual competence should not be perceived as the separate command of multiple distinct languages, but rather as a single and complex linguistic competence that can be used in different contexts (Lörincz & de Pietro, 2011). In that regard, a plurilingual approach to languages and cultures refers to the use of more than one language or a variety of languages when teaching a subject (European Centre for Modern Languages [ECML], 2020). In 2011, a Framework of Reference for Plurilingual Approaches to Languages and Cultures (FREPA) was created by the ECML. This framework serves as a point of reference for using plurilingual approaches to support learners’ development of plurilingual and intercultural competence. The framework identifies four main plurilingual approaches. The first is the Integrated Didactic Approach, which consists of making connections between a limited number of languages taught in the school. Second is the Intercomprehension Between Related Languages, which provides learners with the space to work with several languages from the same family. Third is the approach called Awakening to Languages, which develops learners’ awareness of languages not taught in the school. Fourth is the Intercultural Approach, which focuses on the promotion of openness to others and the development of one’s understanding of diverse languages, people, and cultures (ECML, 2020). Although over 10 years have passed since the creation of the framework, it is not clear to what extent any of these approaches have been incorporated into Ontario’s French-language schools.

In light of the above, it is clear that diversity is transforming Ontario’s French speaking schools. The policies and programs in place demonstrate a desire to make the school system more inclusive. On this point, integrating plurilingual teaching practices via the ALF program shows potential for contributing to allophone students’ inclusion within Ontario’s francophone schools. It is, then, imperative to examine the ways principals and teachers within Ontario’s French-speaking schools view and address the linguistic diversity of students affiliated with the ALF program.

Research Question

Drawing from the above theoretical framework, this article is guided by the following research question: How do principals and teachers in francophone elementary schools in Ontario view and address the linguistic diversity of students enrolled in the ALF program?

Method

Recruitment of Participants

The study focused on four francophone school boards within the Ottawa and Toronto regions; these cities were chosen because they have the largest immigrant population in Ontario (Statistics Canada, 2017). After obtaining ethics approval from the selected school boards, consent forms were distributed in elementary schools to principals and teachers affiliated with the ALF program. Five principals and eleven teachers agreed to take part in the study. Their distribution is shown in Table 1 below.

 

Principals (n)

Teachers (n)

School Board 1

2

6

School Board 2

2

2

School Board 3

1

1

School Board 4

0

2

Total

5

11

Table 1: Distribution of participants according to school boards

Data Collection

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants to identify their views and educational practices (See Appendix for full interview protocol). For instance, participants were asked to describe what they usually do when a student speaks a language other than French in the classroom. Participants were also asked to explain how they usually take cultural diversity into account in their educational practices. The interview protocols included 16 questions and lasted about 20 minutes each. They took place on the phone because that offered more flexibility to the participants. Audio recordings were made of interviews, which were then transcribed in their entirety by a research assistant.

Data Analysis Procedures

After collecting the data, we developed a data analysis procedure that ensured the nuances and complexity of the participants’ responses were preserved (Lawrence-Lightfoot & Hoffmann Davis, 1997). The data associated with each case was carefully reviewed, and a code list was created from our interview protocols. We then conducted an intra-content analysis (i.e., analysis within-participant but across interview questions) to highlight emerging themes. Lastly, to identify common themes, an inter-content analysis (i.e., analysis across participants) was carried out.

Results

This section presents the findings associated with the research question that guides this study. We start with the results from the analysis of the principals’ interviews, then we consider the results from the analysis of the teachers’ interviews. All quotes from participants are translations from the original French.

Principals

All participating principals believed that part of their role was to support and guide ALF teachers, as illustrated by the following quote from the principal in School Board 3: “My role is as a resource person, I would say. A contact person who will help and guide them [the teachers].” In this case, the support was described as helping and guiding ALF teachers. Of particular relevance to this article, a principal in School Board 1 indicated that their role was to promote ALF students’ bilingualism because in their school most of these students came from Anglo-dominant homes: “My role as a director is to promote bilingualism, because we know that these children come from families [who are] Anglo-dominants, so… [we] are not here to convert them; we want them to learn the language and use it.” It appears, then, that for this principal, bilingualism is primarily associated with Canada’s two official languages (English and French), and not with other languages the students may be speaking. While Anglophone students seem to be in high numbers at this school, there may nevertheless be allophone students whose L1s are not taken into account.

Overall, principals believed it was important to ensure that the ALF teachers had the means to improve students’ achievement of French. Practices of positive reinforcement were, then, implemented by the principals to encourage students to communicate in French outside of the classroom, as illustrated by the following quote from a principal in School Board 1: “We must not punish them [the students]. It is not a question of punishing them, it is a matter of encouraging them. ”The principal in School Board 3 indicated that they did not want students to develop negative relationships with either their L1s or target languages: “It’s about positive reinforcement. We don’t necessarily want to punish; we don’t want the student to hate the language, one or the other [the L1 or the target language], and say that the language is not good.”

In the same vein, three participating principals rewarded students for interacting in French. For instance, a principal in School Board 2 liked to give small rewards such as stickers. The same principal also allowed students who made the most effort to speak in French during the week to go to the park on Fridays: “The students, if they have made the effort to speak French throughout the week, will go to the park for 15 minutes on Friday afternoon.”It seems likely, then, that students who did not make an effort to speak French were not allowed to go to the park. Interestingly, the School Board 3 principal also mentioned the following policy that conveys the idea that languages other than French must be silenced: “One of the rules is: French or silence. You don’t have to speak French but you can remain silent.” The principal in School Board 3 encouraged students to speak in French by making French part of a competition and offering a reward to the winner: “Last year we did a little competition through the classrooms precisely to make a positive reinforcement of spontaneous French in the school.”

Although these reward-driven practices were implemented with well-meant intentions, they indirectly punished the students who did not get a reward. On the other hand, a principal from School Board 2 indicated that instead of rewarding or punishing students, they focused on highlighting students’ efforts:

We are trying to avoid all punitive systems. I know there were systems that were in place before that were reward systems. On the other hand, as staff, we say that we do not see much purpose in rewarding students for speaking French, because it is an expectation that we have…. Like I said, rely on the positive, and then when they make an effort, we should focus on that. Other than “Why do you speak English?” or “Stop speaking English”, [it is] “Well done, you still tried”.

Although participating principals seemed to be concerned primarily with the use and development of Canada’s two official languages (English and French), it is important to note that a principal in School Board 1 indicated that they also promoted learning Spanish: “Absolutely, we have a Spanish program at our school, because when children are young, they will learn other languages.”

One reason why the focus was largely placed on French and English might be because most participating principals (four out of five) worked in schools with large populations of students for whom English seemed to be their L1. For instance, when describing the student population in their school, a principal in School Board 2 said, “Most of them are anglophones with a great dominance of English in [their] homes, in the family environment.” Another principal in the same school board indicated that, “For the most part, they are students from immigrant families, English-speaking or francophile families. It’s not French-speaking students, that’s for sure.” In this instance, it is not clear if the immigrant families they are referring to here are francophone, francophile, anglophone, or allophone. We may assume that although some of these newcomer students are able to communicate in French or English, it is quite possible that neither of these two languages was their L1. This is even more likely considering the same principal indicated having more than 20 countries represented in their school at one point. Along the same lines, a principal in School Board 1 indicated that “We have a family that speaks Tamil, but they speak very good English… We have far fewer newcomers…it’s mostly English speakers.”

Although the focus seems to be generally placed on students’ command of English and French, participating principals also recognized or celebrated to some extent the diversity of their student populations. In that regard, three participating principals indicated that they had integrated diverse cultures into their schools’ teaching programs. For instance, a principal in School Board 2 reported: “We not only address the Canadian Francophonie, but also the world’s Francophonie. ”However, not all principals took such an approach. One principal in School Board 2 reported that recognizing diversity among the student population was not necessarily something that they were doing in a specific manner, other than cultural festivals and recurrent celebration: “We have Black History Month, we celebrate various cultural festivals, we have a cultural parade, [but] it’s really not… I would say it’s not something we do in a targeted way.”

Routinely sharing customs and traditions seemed to be some principals’ preferred way to include diverse cultures into the curriculum, as illustrated by the following quote from another principal in School Board 2: “We often have potlucks with people’s different cultures, with a typical meal of their country.” Another way participating principals addressed cultures within their school is through the promotion of l’approche culturelle. For instance, a principal from School Board 1 explained, “We try to do all cultural activities, then [take] a little bit of an approche culturelle to teaching.” Indeed, the promotion of l’approche culturelle (MEO, 2009b) was a common way that participating principals addressed cultural learning within their schools. An approche culturelle aims to promote the appropriation of the Franco-Ontarian culture by infusing it as much as possible in various teaching activities.

Unfortunately, by focusing on the construction of a Franco-Ontarian identity, this approach de facto results in excluding and delegitimizingthe other cultures of students within the schools (Gérin-Lajoie, 2020). In short, when it comes to the inclusion of other cultures within the programming of francophone elementary schools in Ontario, it appears that activities are mostly focused on the promotion of the Franco-Ontarian culture, with somewhat sporadic and superficial consideration of other cultures (e.g., potlucks, cultural parades, etc.).

This situation may partly be because most participating principals admitted to having difficulty accessing training about ALF students due to lack of time and/or lack of opportunities to do so. For instance, a principal in School Board 1 said, “But since I also teach, I don’t always have time to go to an educational support [training] related to the ALF.” We should also stress that the principal in School Board 3 reported that they did receive training about the ALF program. However, they thought that the teachers in their school who were affiliated with the ALF program should also have access to this training to better prepare them to teach ALF students:

It is training that talks about the [ALF] program precisely, because it is a separate program from the regular [mainstream] program. There should also be training at the teacher level, because yes, it is good to have the ALF teacher, but in the classroom the teacher must use the ALF curriculum to evaluate the students. So, in terms of training, these teachers have the same training for regular students as for ALF students.

It appears, then, that the available ALF training focused mostly on talking about the program. Moreover, in this case, the training available to the ALF teachers did not focus on any special considerations for teaching students in the ALF program as opposed to teaching all students at the school. Like this principal, we believe this lack of ALF-specific teacher training is problematic, considering the specific requirements of these students. Next, we consider the interviews with the teachers.

Teachers

The analysis of the interviews demonstrates that most teachers in the study believed that their role is to ensure that students are able to communicate effectively in French. In the same vein, two teachers highlighted that they were models for students. One of these teachers, who taught in School Board 1, underlined how important it was to support the development of students’ bilingualism:

I believe a lot in bilingualism… that is to say, we have the job we have because we speak both languages, we speak two languages, there are even those of us who speak three, so I think it is very important to develop oral communication with young people who need models for sentence structures and who have to communicate in French.

It should be noted that this teacher also recognized that some students do speak other languages. Other teachers from other school boards also acknowledged this linguistic multiplicity. For instance, a teacher from School Board 2 said, “Most of the students I work with even speak a language other than English at home, and so they are often all trilingual, or even more.” A teacher from School Board 4 recognized that French could be a third language for the ALF students:

So who are these students who have the challenge of learning several languages at the same time? [They speak their] mother tongue at home, they necessarily have English because it is the dominant language, and then here they find themselves learning this third language, which is French.

Similarly, when the participating teachers were asked to explain how they usually reacted when a student spoke a language other than French in the classroom, most teachers reported that punishing the student would not be a good strategy. This was in part because, at the elementary level, teachers recognized the difficulty of requiring students to speak French all the time. For instance, as a teacher from School Board 1 stated, “Certainly it is accepted at certain levels, especially kindergarten…, that we cannot demand [that they speak French] 100 percent of the time… If they are unable to say something in French, they are encouraged to use gestures.”

Apparently, then, this teacher would encourage students to use gestures instead of using English. They also said that they sometimes asked them to use other words in French to explain the missing word, or they would ask other students to provide the word:

I ask their friends in the class—there is often one among the group who knows what the word is in French—or I tell them, often I ask them to use other words [in French] to explain, if the word is in French, try to use another word that can explain that word. Then, it’s to encourage them to use as much French as possible, but it is harmful if they use the English word.

Although this teacher did not necessarily punish their students for not speaking in French, she still tried to prevent students as much as possible from using English, because in her opinion it would be harmful. In the same vein, other teachers from the same school board implemented reward systems to promote the use of French. For instance, one teacher declared using toy frogs as a reward for speaking French:

They are little white frogs, and they are given during classes [when a child speaks in French], and the child walks with the white frog, so others see the white frog and want one too, so I make them speak to me in French.

Other teachers from the same school board (School Board 1) also reported that they would sometimes try to use cognates between French and English. For instance, one teacher noted, “I just wanted to say, sometimes with English and French you can make positive transfers, orange vs. orange.” This practice of positive transfers seemed to be in place in other school boards as well. For instance, a teacher from School Board 2 noted:

There are very simple words that a student might not be certain of, so I tell them okay, but that’s a cognate, and then I explain to them what it is… for example, the word hospital. Often the student will say the word hospital in a sentence in French, and I will make them recognize that it is said almost the same way, but in French it is said this way.

The teachers from School Board 4 differed from other participants in terms of their use of plurilingual approaches to teaching French. For instance, one teacher from School Board 4 said:

They encourage us not only to teach French, but to integrate the [first] languages of the students. For example, we take an object and I say the name in French, and each student will repeat it in his native language. After that, I ask the students to repeat it in the mother tongue of others. It gives a certain appreciation to the student, and also an assurance… so we work a lot on self-esteem, and the students feel accepted in the group.

Based on the analysis of teachers’ interviews, it appears that teachers in this school board were broadly encouraged to use such plurilingual approaches. For example, another teacher from the same school board talked about the resources that were provided to teachers to help them implement such approaches:

There was a kit that was made for the teachers to get to know about students’ home countries. This year I took advantage of participating in a terrific project, ELODiL [Éveil au Langage et Ouverture à la Diversité Linguistique/Awakening to Languages and Opening to linguistic diversity], so with my advisor we embarked in plurality theatre with my newcomers. We did theatre in all languages, and what is magical is that the children will make themselves understood by others, and will use French as the common language, as soon as we show them that we are open to their [first] language. We have games that are played in all languages, [and] they are no longer terrified by teachers… So I think that yes, for my teaching colleagues, there is more and more of an openness [to integrating students’ languages].

Thus, besides appreciating these plurilingual approaches to teaching, this teacher also noticed a gradual acceptance of the use of plurilingual approaches among their colleagues and positive impacts on students.

However, interview findings indicate that adopting plurilingual approaches was challenging for many reasons. For instance, one teacher from the same school board reported that some francophone parents did not appreciate such approaches because they sent their child to a francophone school primarily to speak French and not other languages:

The current situation is that we have Canadian, French-speaking parents who are going to find their children playing Arabic in the classroom, and then for those students, we have parents who change schools because they say ‘my child is there for French.’

Another teacher from a different school board noted that it can sometimes be difficult for a teacher to help students in a language the teacher does not know:

“I think that if the child does not have a language that I know, it will be difficult to help them, but if he at least knows English, which is a language that I know, then I will be able to communicate and help them.”

Although participating teachers were not always comfortable using other languages in their classrooms, they generally tried to integrate learners’ cultures in different ways. For instance, most participating teachers invited students to share their experiences and cultural references. As one teacher from School Board 4 said, “We work a lot on cultural references, so it’s to go and get a little [information…]; how do they live or how do they celebrate certain festivals, certain things according to their culture and identity.” Another teacher from School Board 4 liked to use children’s literature to get to know students’ various cultures:

That’s what I have with my colleagues in literacy, we’re moving more and more towards children’s literature, which is open to all cultures, [literature] that speaks about Africa. With ELODiL we have acquired these books, which expose students to other languages and to children’s literature that speaks precisely about the cultural diversity of tolerance. As soon as students are curious, they ask questions about cultures, practices, they do research themselves… I think it’s part of our daily practices, since it’s now easier for students to know and introduce themselves to others, to their traditions and what they do with their culture, so there is no more shutting down.

This quote suggests that, at this school, ALF students used to be uncomfortable speaking about themselves and their cultures, but using plurilingual children’s literature helped resolve this issue. Another approach the teachers used to integrate different cultures was song. For instance, a teacher from School Board 1 talked about an activity where students were invited to sing Canada’s national anthem in Tamil:

We have a family that comes from Sri Lanka and there was a talent show, and then before we started the show, we sang the national anthem in both French and Tamil to promote their culture and the words of their country, and they were really proud.

In sum, the interview findings indicate that not all principals and ALF teachers in Ontario’s French-speaking schools shared equally the goal of integrating students’ L1s and cultures. For instance, some participants used reward-driven practices to discourage students from using other languages besides French whereas other participants used children’s literature to expose students to diverse languages and cultures.

Discussion

In response to the research question which asked how principals and teachers in francophone elementary schools in Ontario viewed and addressed the linguistic diversity of students enrolled in the ALF program, it appears that most participants considered students’ linguistic diversity primarily through the lens of their mandate to protect and promote the French language and culture. Indeed, the primary goal of both principals and teachers was to ensure that students enrolled in the ALF program were able to communicate effectively in French. When other languages were considered, it was usually in terms of their capacity to enhance or hinder the acquisition of French.

In that regard, two distinct approaches emerged from the data. The first will be referred to as a monolingual approach to language teaching and learning. Within this approach, languages and cultures are learned in silos, in other words separated from other languages and cultures (Coste et al., 2009; Piccardo, 2013). As such, translation and other crosslinguistic treatments are usually perceived as threats to the “integrity” and acquisition of the target language and culture—a belief criticised in ECML (2020). Here, we can recall the participant who stated that “you don’t have to speak French but you can remain silent.” Such a perspective is usually associated with traditional approaches to language teaching and learning. The first author’s initial training as a language teacher 25 years ago was based on these principles. They were taught that translation should be avoided at all cost, and references to students’ L1s and cultures should be allowed only to promote positive transfers from the L1s to the target language. Just like some of the participants, the first author encouraged learners to use gestures when they did not know a word as well as cognates to guess the meaning of a word. At the time, language teachers had no reason to question such monolingual approaches, particularly when learners had little opportunity to use the target language outside of the classroom. As such, teaching a language consisted, in part, of providing a space where learners would communicate as much as possible in the target language. Given the long history of such a perspective—and the limited access to French language and culture in Ontario beyond the province’s francophone schools—it is not surprising that similar principles guided the practices of most of the participants in this study. However, research shows that such monolingual approaches to language teaching and learning are not inclusive and are not beneficial to language teaching and learning within plurilingual educational contexts (Cummins, 2000; Marshall & Moore, 2018).

The second approach that emerged from the data can be referred to as a plurilingual approach to language teaching and learning (Canagarajah, 2009; Coste et al., 2009). Within this approach, languages and cultures are not learned in silos, but are seen as part of a plural, complex, and integrated competence that includes all languages known by students (Candelier & Castelotti, 2013). As such, the goal of a plurilingual approach is to implement teaching and learning practices that are conducive to the use of knowledge, skills, and mindsets within the entirety of learners’ linguistic repertoires to enhance the acquisition of the target language and culture (Candelier & Castelotti, 2013). The findings indicate that such approaches are promoted in School Board 4. However, while principals’ and teachers’ opinions seem to have evolved in some cases regarding a plurilingual approach to language teaching and learning, the interview findings introduced here demonstrate that there is still a long road ahead for the implementation of inclusive plurilingual practices within the ALF program.

In particular, data revealed that sporadic and folkloric accounts of other cultures were still being used in most participating school boards (e.g., cultural festivals, international meals, etc.). Access to appropriate training also emerged as being a challenge in most cases, although School Board 4 stood out as being proactive in that regard (e.g., ELODilL). In a sign of the numerous challenges to implementing a plurilingual approach, some teachers in School Board 4 also emphasized the role of parents’ views on the mission of francophone schools and language learning. Participants reported that some parents did not appreciate when languages other than French were used in the classroom. This obstacle demonstrates the importance of considering the larger community when implementing inclusive plurilingual practices in Ontario’s francophone schools.

Conclusion

This study aimed to explore the ways that principals and teachers in Ontario’s francophone elementary schools viewed and addressed the linguistic diversity of students enrolled in the ALF program. The findings cannot be generalized to all francophone elementary schools across the province, nevertheless they raise important issues that should be considered by any school with allophone students, especially concerning the need for ALF specific training and the adaptation of teaching practices to the wider communal context. It was also clear that allophone students’ L1s remain marginalized within Ontario’s francophone schools.

Due to Franco-Ontarians’ long history with assimilation, it is difficult to reimagine Ontario’s French-speaking world as one that embraces linguistic plurality. Thus, the protectionist practices of various stakeholders (principals, teachers, parents) tend to rely on outdated monolingual teaching practices. Even in the face of these challenges, however, some participants in this study demonstrated that they have embraced inclusive plurilingual teaching and learning practices, which shows us that things are beginning to change, albeit slowly—and this is very encouraging.

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Appendix

Entrevues pour les directions

1. Depuis combien de temps l’ALF est-il implanté dans votre école ?

2. Depuis la mise en place de l’ALF, que diriez-vous des élèves qui y sont inscrits ?

3. Comment le conseil scolaire se mobilise-t-il pour soutenir votre école sur le plan des ressources financières et humaines pour l’ALF ?

4. Selon vous, comment votre conseil scolaire pourrait vous aider davantage dans la gestion de l’ALF?

5. Recevez-vous des formations pour mieux saisir les enjeux relatifs à l’ALF?

a. Si oui, de quel type et par qui ?
b. Sinon, lesquelles souhaiteriez-vous ?

6. Comment vous assurez-vous de l’efficacité de l’ALF en tant que direction?

7. Que diriez-vous des modalités d’évaluation :

a. des élèves inscrits à ALF ?
b. du programme en tant que tel ?
c. des personnes impliquées auprès des élèves inscrits à l’ALF ?

8. Quelles sont les pratiques pédagogiques que vous préconisez auprès de ces élèves ?

9. Comment envisagez-vous votre rôle par rapport à l’ALF?

a. auprès de la personne-ressource ?
b. auprès des enseignants ?
c. auprès des parents ?

10.Quels sont vos plus grands défis en tant que directeur par rapport à l’ALF?

a. Comment les contournez-vous ?
b. Que suggéreriez-vous comme améliorations ?

11.Comment les parents se mobilisent-ils pour vous soutenir dans votre mission ?

12. Comment prenez-vous en compte la diversité culturelle au sein de votre établissement?

13. Quelles sont les politiques si un élève parle une autre langue que le français dans l’école?

14. De quelle conception générale d’apprentissage des langues vous sentez-vous le plus proche :

a. «On apprend la langue en connaissant d’abord le code (les règles de grammaire, d’orthographe…) »
b. «On apprend le code en connaissant d’abord la langue (parler, échanger, reformuler, lire…). »

15. Sur une échelle de 1 à 5, dites-nous si vous vous sentez « éloigné » (1) ou « proche » de ces langues ?

  • anglais
  • arabe
  • espagnol
  • lingala
  • wolof
  • portugais
  • roumain
  • chinois
  • créole
  • ukrainien
  • farsi
  • autres (lesquelles ?)

16. Comment décidez-vous qu’un élève devrait faire partie du programme ALF?

Entrevues pour le personnel enseignant

1. Depuis combien de temps enseignez-vous?

2. Depuis combien de temps enseignez-vous aux élèves en ALF?

3. Qu’est-ce qui vous a conduit à travailler avec ces élèves? Pourquoi ?

4. Comment envisagez-vous votre rôle auprès des élèves ALF?

5. Quelle(s) langue(s) parlez-vous au quotidien?

6. Comment les connaissez-vous?

Exemples:

  • par ma famille
  • par mon environnement
  • par mes études
  • par mes voyages
  • autres langues que vous connaissez, mais que vous n’utilisez pas en ce moment?

7. Comment décidez-vous qu’un élève devrait faire partie du programme ALF

8. Comment décidez-vous qu’un élève devrait être retiré du programme ALF?

9. Comment vous assurez-vous du progrès de l’élève inscrit au programme ALF?

10. Que diriez-vous des élèves inscrits au programme ALF?

11. De quelle pratique vous sentez-vous le plus proche et expliquez votre choix?

a. « Je préfère ne pas trop faire référence aux expériences vécues en dehors de l’école. »
b. « Je suis à l’aise pour inciter l’élève à s’appuyer sur les expériences vécues à la maison. »

12. Faites-vous en classe des liens entre le français (forme d’un mot, sens d’un mot…) et d’autres langues?

13. Comment prenez-vous en compte la diversité culturelle dans vos pratiques pédagogiques?

14. Que faites-vous si un élève parle une autre langue que le français dans la salle de classe?

15. Pensez-vous que ce sera plus simple de développer des compétences en français pour un élève arrivant de Roumanie ou pour un élève arrivant de Régina, en sachant qu’aucun d’eux ne parle le français?

16. Sur une échelle de 1 à 5, dites-nous si vous vous sentez « éloigné » (1) ou « proche » de ces langues ?

  • anglais
  • arabe
  • espagnol
  • lingala
  • wolof
  • portugais
  • roumain
  • chinois
  • créole
  • ukrainien
  • farsi
  • autres (lesquelles ?)

Editorial 5(2): Crossing Language Ideological Divides

ALISON CRUMP, Marianopolis College and McGill University

MELA SARKAR, McGill University

LAUREN STRACHAN, Concordia University

Introduction

Dear readers, do you remember the eve of 2021? Do you remember saying goodbye to 2020, feeling a glimmer of hope for the coming year, looking forward to brighter days, in-person connections, family gatherings, and a lot less screen time? As we pass through the first half of 2021, it seems—dare we say!—that we can finally start to look to the future with some optimism as we transition to non-pandemic life; at least in Montreal, where we are writing from.

And yet, for educators and scholars of critical sociolinguistics and applied linguistics in Montreal, the recent announcement of Bill 96, “An Act respecting French, the official and common language of Québec,” evokes a sense of moving back in time. This proposed legislation, if passed, will have wide-ranging impacts on almost every sector of Quebec society. With respect to language and education in Québec, Bill 96 pushes against what our scholarly community has been advocating through research, policy, and practice for decades. For instance, we take as foundational that:

  • the world is more multilingual than monolingual (e.g., Blackledge & Creese, 2010);
  • multilingualism is good for the brain (e.g., Bialystok, 2009; Grosjean, 1982);
  • Montreal is the city in North America with the highest rate of trilingualism (French, English, and one or more other languages) (e.g., Lamarre, 2003);
  • newcomer integration into a host society is best supported through additive, not subtractive, educational approaches to language (e.g., Allen, 2006; Cummins, 2009; Garcia, 2009; Genesee, 1989; Hornberger, 2003);
  • denying language choice can negatively impact individuals’ identity and sense of belonging (e.g., Fishman, 1972; Rampton, 1985; Schecter & Cummins, 2003).

That’s the backdrop. Against that backdrop, through decades of research and educational policies and practices, we have carved out spaces—both ideological and physical—to integrate plurilingual perspectives. Now, squarely in the foreground, those spaces stand to be narrowed by Bill 96.

Support for French in Quebec need not be either-or, but rather both-and. We can maintain French as a strong langue publique commune AND celebrate the plurilingualism that is lived in Montreal. Such perspectives on belonging, identity, language, and diversity need to be voiced in public spaces. J-BILD is one such public space; the articles in this current issue are, we feel, particularly good examples of the voices we are glad to help be heard.

The upcoming Language Policy and Planning (LPP) conference (August, 2021), hosted by McGill University with the support of the BILD Research Group, is another such space. The conference is a timely forum that enters multidisciplinary approaches to LPP in Montreal into dialogue with an international audience. The relevance, in terms of timing and location, of this year’s conference is not lost on us: Coming as it does just a few months after the announcement of Bill 96, this conference is well-poised to stimulate debate and discussion around issues of language planning and policy in this very real local context, one which many conference attendees—not to mention all its organizers—care about deeply. The next two J-BILD issues will be special issues featuring publications from the LPP conference, and will serve to ensure that discussions emerging from the conference find their way into public spaces and discourse. How else can we keep working to cross ideological divides?

We want to applaud the ongoing work of the BILD research group, a close cousin to J-BILD. BILD has been publishing weekly blog posts since 2014. Mela Sarkar’s inaugural BILD blog post (November 17, 2014) launched the blog as a public forum for sharing research that directly relates to Montréal’s complex sociolinguistic dynamic. In reference to the notion of “bilingualism as a first language” (Swain, 1972)—a notion deeply ingrained in our language ideologies, our research methodologies, and our practices as educators—Mela asked, “What will happen, what is happening, when this way of using language collides head-on with the approved and authorized boundaries schools are mandated to enforce?” This question could not be more relevant in 2021.


Before we introduce the articles in this summer issue of J-BILD, we’d like to introduce our co-author, Lauren Strachan, the newest member of the J-BILD editorial team. Lauren S. has worked with J-BILD as a dedicated copy editor since our early days. In that role, she has been a key contributor to many issues of the journal. This year, we have welcomed Lauren S. to the team as our Senior Copy Editor. With Lauren Halcomb-Smith, J-BILD’s co-founder and Managing Editor, currently on maternity leave, Lauren S. could not have taken on this role at a better time. And, this gives us the chance to shine a light on the essential, yet often underappreciated, work of copy editors in academic publishing. J-BILD copy editors, like our peer mentors, work collaboratively and directly with authors to bring their manuscripts to their final publication-ready state. This is the last stage in the publication process and comes after the peer mentor has recommended the manuscript to proceed. Copy editors have a unique skill set; they empathize with the writer while advocating for the reader; they have a deep understanding of writing and genre conventions, of coherence and cohesion, and a nit-picking attention to detail. Their work brings forward the voices of the authors, sharpens their arguments, and invites the reader into the discussion. As Senior Copy Editor, Lauren S. has grown our pool of J-BILD copy editors, aligned the journal with APA’s recent 7th edition, masterfully ensured timelines were met, and embraced J-BILD’s vision and core principles of open scholarship. Thank you, Lauren!

Article Summaries

Research Studies

Francis Bangou, Carole Fleuret, Marie-Philip Mathieu, and Bianca Jeanveaux’s article “Promoting inclusive plurilingual practices in Ontario’s francophone elementary schools: The experiences of principals and teachers,” presents the results of a study that documented the ways principals and teachers viewed and addressed the linguistic diversity of students enrolled in the Actualisation linguistique en français (ALF) program. Using data from semi-structured interviews conducted with five principals and 11 teachers affiliated with the ALF program, the authors show that allophone students’ first languages remain relatively marginal within the participating schools. While the article highlights the need for ALF-specific training and the adaptation of teaching practices, it also finds that there are signs of some change in terms of inclusion of plurilingual teaching and learning practices.

Jessica Chandras’ article “Student identity in the Indian university: Language and educational stereotypes in higher education,” explores how language ideologies and the use of different languages in colleges and universities in Pune, a city in the western Indian state of Maharashtra, create ways to categorize and stereotype student identities based on language proficiency, caste, rurality, and religious background. Through ethnographic and sociolinguistic methods of participant observations and interviews at two prestigious Pune higher education institutions, Jessica describes multilingual classroom discourse, and perceptions and reflections on language use. She demonstrates how multilingual education addresses diversity and inclusion in theory, but in practice, many students confront additional obstacles through language policies. The article concludes that teachers need to be aware of how their perceptions of student linguistic identities affect pedagogy.

Critical Literature Review

In Wei Liu and David Rathbone’s article “The complexity of international student identity,” the authors review literature on Complexity Theory and present this as a fruitful theoretical lens to examine cross-cultural identity construction of international students. From this theoretical lens, the authors argue that international student identity should be seen as an open system that is fluid and emergent in nature, and educators should contribute to an additive international student identity that embraces multiple languages and cultures. A perpetual state of discomfort due to the development of a narrative identity should be encouraged as a cross-cultural strategy conducive to international students’ continuous learning.

Book Review

Irena Grigoriyan’s review of Mana Kia’s (2020) Persianate Selves: Memories of Place and Origin before Nationalism, begins with a succinct summary of the book. She uses the lens of the core signifier of being Persian – adab – “a proper aesthetic and ethical form of thinking, speaking, and acting, and thus of perceiving, desiring, and experiencing” (Grigoriyan – this issue), to frame her assessment of the book, concluding that “The book itself is a beautiful ode to symbiosis, lineage and learning in the making of a cultural self.”

References

Bialystok, E. (2009). Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(1), 3-11.

Blackledge, A., & Creese, A. (2010). Multilingualism: A critical perspective. Continuum.

Cummins, J. (2009). Multilingualism in the English-language classroom: Pedagogical considerations. Symposium: Imagining multilingual TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 43(2), 317–321.

Fishman, J. (1972). The relationship between micro- and macro-sociolinguistics in the study of who speaks what language to whom and when. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: Selected readings (pp. 15–32). New York: Penguin Books.

García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Genesee, F. (1989). Early bilingual development: One language or two? Journal of Child Language, 16(1), 161–179.

Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Harvard University Press.

Hornberger, N. H. (2003). Continua of biliteracy: An ecological framework for educational policy, research, and practice in multilingual settings. Multilingual Matters.

Lamarre, P. (2003). Growing up trilingual in Montreal: Perceptions of college students. In R. Bayley & S. Schecter (Eds.), Language socialization in bilingual and multilingual societies (pp. 62–80). Multilingual Matters.

Oakes, L., & Warren, J. (2007). Language, citizenship and identity in Quebec. Palgrave Macmillan.

Rampton, B. (1995). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. Longman.

Schecter, S. & Cummins, J. (Eds.) (2003). Multilingual education in practice: Using diversity as a resource. Heinemann.

Swain, M. (1972). Bilingualism as a first language. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of California at Irvine.

Boundaries and Belonging: Language, Diaspora and Motherland

Editorial

ALLA NEDASHKIVSKA, University of Alberta, Canada

HOLGER KUSSE, TU Dresden, Germany

This Special Issue of J-BILD “Boundaries and Belonging: Language, Diaspora and Motherland” is one of the outcomes of a long-term collaboration between the guest editors, Alla Nedashkivska from the University of Alberta, Canada, and Holger Kusse from TU Dresden, Germany. The EU-funded exchange programme Erasmus + facilitated a series of reciprocal research-related visits, in which staff and students from both universities were able to participate. 

Together, the research teams participated in the ASEEES Summer Conventions in Lviv, Ukraine (20162018) and Zagreb, Croatia (2019). In 2016–2017, they collaborated on a project “Ukrainian Identity: the Self and the Other in the context of Ukrainian Diaspora”. The conference “Crisis and Identity: Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives on Ukraine and its Diaspora”, organized by Alla Nedashkivska at the University of Alberta in March 2017, as a part of a larger project “The Research Initiative on Democratic Reforms in Ukraine,” was also attended by colleagues from TU Dresden. The idea for the current Special Issue emerged at the ASEEES Convention in Zagreb, after our joint panel on “Language as a Tool to Political and Symbolic Demarcation.” At this panel, we (Holger Kusse, Alla Nedashkivska, and Marianna Novosolova) explored and debated the known language conflict in Ukraine, which was and is also a conflict about language identity and language ideologies. In addition, at this venue, particularly during the panel “War of Languages and Language of War in Contemporary Ukraine,” we had the pleasure of getting acquainted with the work of Nadiya Kiss and Liudmyla Pidkuimukha. The conference thus marks the beginning of our reflections on the topic of “Boundaries and Belonging.”

We wanted to expand our fruitful discussions to include a broader perspective on boundaries and belonging, including the relationship between motherland and diaspora and in a variety of contexts. As a result, in this special issue, we are happy to present invigorating work by our colleagues that focus their inquiries on German (Jennifer Dailey o’Cain and Grit Liebscher) and Italian (Maria Lieber and Christoph Oliver Mayer) diaspora in Canada; French vs Bengali in the writings of the French-Indian writer Shumona Sinha (Srilata Ravi); Arabic in France (Chantal Tetreault); and languages network of the former Yugoslavia (Gal Kirn), in addition to those that focus on Ukrainian (Alla Nedashkivska, Marianna Novosolova, Nadiya Kiss, and Liudmyla Pidkuimukha). 

To situate this Special Issue in the context of language boundaries in different multilingual and multicultural spaces, Holger Kusse offers his detailed introductory article. All research articles are organized within two major sections, one focusing on the context of diaspora, and another on the context of motherland. Both sections are closely intertwined as authors question constructions of motherland and diaspora, explore language and identity, and thereby discuss the various belongings and boundaries in a variety of contexts. 

With this Special Issue, we hope to enrich further discussion on questions of language identity, which is both a function of Belonging and the establishment of Boundaries.

We would like to thank the editors of J-BILD for the opportunity to publish our Special Issue in their young, but incredibly rich journal.

Inviting Reflection

Editorial

ALISON CRUMP, Marianopolis College and McGill University

Preamble

When we wrote our last editorial, we were a couple of months into the Covid-19 global pandemic, in the early days of adjusting to separation, staying home, and redefining socializing. Now, we have more months of pandemic life experience behind us, and it looks like a number more on the horizon. In March next year, we will collectively pass a one-year milestone. There is no doubt that this is reshaping our ways of being in all dimensions of social life, not only now, but it also raises questions about how we move through this and into a new post-Covid “normal.”

At the risk of being repetitive, we offer you a second editorial that is defined by the pandemic. To be sure, it is very hard not to locate our thinking about belonging, identity, language, and diversity (BILD) in the current context. In fact, this is exactly what we should be doing – we need to be thinking about the impact of the current global situation on BILD issues. We also cannot ignore the uprisings against systemic discrimination and racism that are shaping the educational landscape. In the last editorial, we wrote about how what we do individually contributes to the collective common good, emphasizing that our local, individual actions and choices matter. In this editorial, we build on that notion with a shift in focus to BILD issues in the context of teaching and learning. Pedagogy has always been a central part of the activity of educational institutions, though in research-focused higher education institutions, pedagogy has been given lower status and attention than research activities. Now, the attention has shifted to teaching and learning in unprecedented ways, and more than ever before, professionals with expertise in pedagogy (instructional designers, pedagogical counsellors and education consultants, etc.) have become indispensable resources in support of the teaching and learning activities of educators. Seasoned educators have been pushed quickly to re-examine everything they know about their professional identities and have had to question fundamental notions that make up those identities.

Teachers across education sectors have rapidly shifted their practice to online teaching, and this has meant learning new tools and technologies, learning new ways of assessing learning, trying new strategies to foster student engagement, carrying new responsibilities for implementing safety protocols, understanding privacy in digital spaces, and striving to create communities of learners who connect in meaningful ways. I’m sure J-BILD readers could add many more to this list (and in fact, you can! Feel free to leave a reply at the bottom of the HTML version of this editorial). These many new challenges, opportunities, realities are more central to pedagogical practice than perhaps they ever have been. (Though not so new for e-learning specialists). And all this intentional and explicit focus on the why, how, what, and for whom of teaching means there are many questions to consider about the themes that make up the pillars of J-BILD. We are all navigating so much new territory and we have a lot to learn, reflect on, and build forward from as the landscape of education reacts, responds, and readjusts.

This issue of J-BILD includes 2 critical literature reviews, 1 research proposal, and 2 research studies, which reflects the mission of J-BILD to publish scholarly works from all stages of the research cycle, and to support emerging and developing voices in the scholarly community.

The 5 articles that make up this issue of J-BILD, while based on research that predates pandemic days, do invite reflection that is needed in the current context. We encourage you to read them with a view to what they offer our understandings the four pillars of the journal in ways that will contribute to the common good.

Article Summaries

Critical Literature Reviews

Hector Alvarez’ “Critical Literature Review: Native speakerism within the Asian Context” opens with a personal story of the author’s  experience as an experienced English teacher from Argentina looking for work in Asia and facing discrimination as a non-native speaking teacher of English (NNEST). Using  his own experience as a springboard for his research, Hector examines three questions in his critical literature review: 1) Why are Native English Speaking Teachers (NESTs) still considered superior to Non-Native English Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) in many international language schools?; 2) How can misperceptions about NES or NNEST status influence hiring practices within the Asian context?; and 3) What type(s) of research could help counteract current biases towards NNESTs? In this article, Hector makes it clear that fixed identity categories and the ideologies that maintain them have real and material consequences for individual experiences. Hector’s argument that more research on teacher classroom performance is critical for debunking the native speaker bias, is even more urgent in our current reality.

Lexa Frail and Lisa Gonzales’ critical literature review, “Plurilingual Pedagogy in Switzerland: Practices and Challenges” evaluates literature on current implementations of plurilingual practices in Swiss education and determines how such practices are perceived by instructors and students, both in terms of effectiveness and engagement. The works of literature chosen for the review consist of studies that measure Swiss teacher and student attitudes towards plurilingualism and its use in the classroom, as well as how plurilingualism teaching methods appear in practice. In their analysis, they find that there is a disconnect between plurilingual instruction in theory and in practice, with multilingualism viewed largely as a collection of multiple monolingual systems. Frail and Gonzales argue that to implement a true plurilingual shift in education will take more research and resources, which are essential in our globalised, increasingly multilingual world.

Research Proposal

Mona El Samaty’s research proposal,  “The sense of belonging of second-generation Arab youth in Montreal” draws on two definitions of belonging in this article: 1) as feeling at home and having strong feelings of attachment towards a place or a community (Goitom, 2017) and 2) as only a reflection of the extent to which immigrants and their children feel attached to their host society, as well as the extent to which they feel accepted by the majority population (Banting & Soraka, 2012). In particular, El Samaty will use these framings of belonging in her research to understand how second-generation Arab youth in Montreal describe their territorial belonging as well as belonging to different social communities, and how they think they are perceived by the majority population. This study will contribute to the ongoing exploration of factors that both promote and jeopardize the integration and sense of belonging of second generation youth, with the aim of building a more inclusive and participatory society.

Research Studies

Claire McCarthy’s research study, “Speaking another language: Australian multilingual films” uses textual analysis to draw attention to a series of Australian films that represent Asian-Australian migrant subjects, and are multilingual and multicultural representations of Australian life. As Australian multicultural filmmaking developed in the 1990s, so did the presence of Australian-made multilingual cinema, which highlighted Australia’s changing relationship with the Asia-Pacific region, and its growing recognition of linguistic, as well as cultural, diversity. The analysis finds that these examples illustrate the adaptation or creative interpretation of multiculturalism as a national heritage discourse, and raises questions about the practicality of Australian multiculturalism as a national framework in the context of an ongoing commitment to a singular national language, English. McCarthy argues that film informs and shapes how Australians imagine what multiculturalism is; as a nationally sponsored industry, it is not only central to the ongoing construction of national identities, but also to the ongoing production of Australian cultural and multicultural heritage.

Emmanouela Tisizi’s research study, “Teacher identities in Heritage Language Education: the case of Greek Heritage Language teachers in Montreal and Toronto,” focuses on the identities and perceptions of pedagogy expressed by eight Greek heritage language (HL) teachers who teach in primary and secondary Greek schools in Montreal and Toronto. Through narrative inquiry, semi-structured interviews and identity charts, Tisizi argues that there is merit in using translanguaging strategies in the HL classroom. She also finds similarities between the teachers in Montreal and Toronto and Tisizi emphasizes the importance of Greek communities in Canada working together in their efforts to maintain Greek heritage language. This is perhaps more urgent now than ever before.

J-BILD readers, be well, be kind to yourselves. Take good care.

Nativespeakerism Within the Asian Context

Critical Literature Review

Hector Sebastian Alvarez, McGill University

Abstract

This article provides a comprehensive review of Nativespeakerism: its definition in English Language Teaching (ELT), how it operates on a practical level, its historical background, and the current states of affairs as well as the research carried out so far in relation to the native-speakerist phenomenon. Even though the current multilingual paradigm has disproved the inherent superiority of the “native” English Speaker (NES), mainstream ELT markets still demonstrate strong preferences for the native over the non-native speaker. While research has already begun to demonstrate how pedagogical proficiency and linguistic competence are more important to student success than a teacher’s status as a native or non-native speaker of a language, further research into teacher classroom performance is needed to debunk pervasive myths that native speaker status perceived proficiency, and race are sufficient qualification for effective language teaching.

Résumé

Cet article fournit un examen complet du “Nativespeakerism”: sa définition dans l’enseignement de la langue anglaise (ELT), son fonctionnement sur le plan pratique, son contexte historique et l’état actuel des choses, ainsi que les recherches menées jusqu’à présent en relation avec le phénomène des locuteurs natifs. Même si le paradigme multilingue actuel a réfuté la supériorité inhérente de l’anglophone “natif” (NES), les marchés principaux de l’ELT continuent de privilégier fortement l’anglophone natif par rapport à l’anglophone non natif. Ds recherches supplémentaires sur les performances des enseignants en classe sont nécessaires pour démystifier les mythes omniprésents selon lesquels la nativité, la compétence et la race suffisent à elles seules pour un enseignement efficace.

Keywords: NEST, NNEST, Native-speakerism, discrimination, Asia

Encounter with Nativespeakersim

I am originally from Argentina. When I finished my MA in TESOL at an American university, I thought I was ready for what would be a great job somewhere in the world. I was curious to try my chances in other countries. I was especially keen to acquire teaching experience in some non-Spanish speaking countries as well as, perhaps, benefitting from the better socioeconomic situation in these other countries since Argentina was (and still is) going through a harsh economic crisis. I was sure that with the experience I had at the time; around 6 years of language teaching experience, and my advanced qualification; an MA in TESOL, finding a decent job as an EFL teacher would not be difficult. Due to Europe’s economic downturn and employment protectionist policies, I considered Asia as my best option. However, to my surprise, I learned after an extensive job-hunt that getting a position in South Korea, Japan or China would not be as easy as I had envisioned, given that I was lacking one so-called qualification in high demand by many Asian employers: I am not a Native English Speaking Teacher (NEST). My example is not an isolated case. There are a number of documented instances of discriminatory hiring practices in Asia, as I will enumerate throughout my literature review. Based on these experiences, I’m seeking to understand the following phenomena: 1) Why Native English Speaking Teachers (NESTs) are still considered superior to Non-Native English Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) in many international language schools, 2) How misperceptions about NES or NNES status can influence hiring practices within the Asian context?, and 3) What type(s) of research could help counteract current biases towards NNESTs? To answer these questions, I will briefly trace the historical underpinnings that have led to what is known today as nativespeakerism, and I will analyze how this pervasive ideology permeates the language teaching market in Asia, leading to unfair hiring practices, and potentially leading to negative learning outcomes for language students.

Nativespeakerism

The idea of nativespeakerism equates native speakers with “the Western culture from which springs the ideals both of the English language and of English language teaching methodology” (Holliday, 2005, p. 6). Holliday’s definition suggests that the native speaker is the most successful teacher of a target language. Students, recruiters, and Non-Native English Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) themselves often attribute superior status to Native English speaking Teachers (NESTs) for different reasons. First, as “owners” of the English language (Widdowson, 1994), NESTs’ superior language skills, which conform to the norm of native-speaking models (Kachru, 1992) are considered by many to be the best target-language role-models (Phillipson, 1992; Rao, 2005), especially for pronunciation teaching (Jenkins, 2005). The conceptualization of the NEST as having superior language skills is inherently problematic for a number of reasons. Not only is it a misguided attempt to put perceived linguistic proficiency ahead of teaching qualifications and experience, the underlying presumptions that language schools have concerning the superiority of NESTs over NNESTs are spurious; in fact,they may achieve the opposite of what most language schools are purporting to do; that is, to hire the best language teachers on the market.

Language schools’ preference for NESTs is prevalent in many different contexts. One only has to look at teaching job-ads in East Asia, which regularly require applicants to be native English speakers holding a passport from an Inner-Circle country (i.e., countries where English is the native language of their inhabitants such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia) (Mahboob & Golden, 2013; Ruecker & Ives, 2015). Indeed, these native-speakerist indicators are framed as the primary required qualifications and are more often listed as necessary for the position than qualifications and/or experience in teaching (Mahboob & Golden, 2013; Ruecker & Ives, 2015; Selvi, 2010). Often a bachelor’s degree from an English speaking university in any unrelated field is considered adequate education, as long as the candidate is a native speaker. Some countries such as South Korea (EPIK, 2013) and China (State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs, 2018) have enforced national policies compelling foreign language teachers to only teach their mother tongue. Under this rationale, Spanish teachers should hold passports from Spanish speaking countries and English teachers should hold passports from English speaking countries, though it is important to note that specific policies vary greatly in terms of which countries can be considered as English speaking countries. The conflation of nationality with language proficiency is problematic given that a certain nationality does not necessarily guarantee that a potential teacher is proficient in the desired language. For example, in Canada 7.7 million citizens, or 23.2% of the population, speak French as their first language, while a further 1.8%, or 600,000 Canadians are neither fluent in French nor English (French and the francophonie in Canada, 2018). In the United States, 63 million people speak a language other than English at home, and of these 63 million, 41% (25.6 million) told the Census Bureau that they speak English “less than very well” (Bedard, 2018, para. 7). Therefore, making the association between a national passport and an expected level of specific language proficiency is inherently problematic. Further, even so called inner circle countries are experiencing demographic changes that problematize the idea of a native standard variety of English (Yano, 2009). Yano suggested that this phenomenon can be witnessed with the increase of Hispanics and foreigners in the United States for the last ten years. Hence, Hispanification is bringing a new reality to the English spoken in an inner-circle country like the United States with expressions such as “mi casa es su casa,” “mano a mano” and a broad arrangement of vocabulary imported from the Spanish language. Another similar phenomenon is the use of the invariable tag “in it”, as in “you are happy, in it,” by Londoners younger than 25. This phenomenon is attributed to the influx of immigrants from South Asia (Yano, 2009). These two examples show how inner-circle English varieties might be taking on characteristics of so-called non-native varieties and even non-English words into its standard inner-circle English repertoire. This is why equating linguistic proficiency and a specific standard variety of English with citizenship is not only reductive, it is inaccurate.

A secondary problem with the preference for native speakers is that the idea of a native speaker itself is inherently problematic. What is a “native speaker” of a language? How can a clear-cut answer be achieved about who is native and who is a non-native speaker? Common sense answers to these questions vary depending on who is defining the term, as well as the type of language ideology applied. For example, Bloomfield (1935) defined the native language as “the first language a human being learns to speak” (p. 43). However, no account is made of instances where the second language a child acquires becomes their dominant language, and where the speaker becomes more proficient in that second language. These examples serve to challenge the somewhat commonsensical assumption (for many) that a native speaker of a language is, by extension, inherently proficient. Further, McArthur, Lam-McArthur and Fontaine (2018) have offered another somewhat vague definition of a native speaker as “[a] person who has spoken a certain language since early childhood” (p. 45). Davies (2003), in a more extensive analysis, used six characteristics to define the native speaker: age of acquisition, grammatical intuition in the L1, intuition of how the L2 grammar differs from the L1 grammar, and discoursal, creative and translation (to L1) capabilities of the native-speaker. Based on the “age of acquisition” characteristic, Davies argued that “it is difficult for an adult non-native speaker to become a native speaker of a second language precisely because I define a native speaker as a person who has early acquired the language” (p. 213). While Davies affirmed that a non-native can acquire native-speaker communicative competence, his definition automatically excludes anyone who was not born speaking a language from native status, which is problematic given the power and status granted to native over non-native speakers.

Scholars in the 1990s began to challenge the native/non-native dichotomy and its inherent bias for the native over the non-native. Kachru and Nelson (1996), for example, do not use the term native speaker but instead refer to “users” of English and “types of users” (p. 77). Kachru (1992) also explains that a deviation from a certain model (e.g., General American, Received Pronunciation) should not be considered as a mistake coming from “deficient Englishes” (p. 66), but rather a deviation from a unique variety of English (e.g,. Indian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean English, etc.).

Rampton (1990) also challenged the validity of assumptions of superiority associated with the native-speaker by stating that “nobody’s functional command [of English] is total: users of a language are more proficient in some areas than others” (p. 98). Rampton’s argument is that some non-native speakers could be better at, for instance, writing academic papers than native speakers. Rampton generates a more nuanced conceptualization of linguistic proficiency through the introduction of the concept of expertise. A language presents different domains (for example, speaking competency, writing competency) that users of that language might have command of to a greater or lesser degree. Expertise accentuates the aspect of individual domain-specific competency. As Rampton (1990) explained, “Expertise is partial. People can be experts in several fields, but they are never omniscient” (p. 99); and further, he noted that expertise is “learned, not fixed or innate” (p. 98). According to Rampton, as well as Kachru and Nelson (1996), the description of someone’s expertise as a user of English is not only a more accurate way of viewing a person’s abilities in English, it avoids the pitfalls of conflating citizenship with competence.

Nativespeakerism as a colonial by-product

The final issue with the use of native or non-native speakers is in its race-based origins, given that the ideal NEST is considered a white Anglo-Saxon (Ruecker & Ives, 2015; Kubota & Lin, 2006). The perception of the inherent superiority attributed to the native speaker, also referred to as the native speaker fallacy (Phillipson, 1992), has been traced back in the literature to two historical developments. The first is the Commonwealth Conference of the Teaching of English as a Second Language held in Uganda in 1961. Phillipson (1992) has noted that one of the key tenets held by attendees of this conference was that “the ideal teacher of English is a native speaker” (p. 185). Indeed, this tenet has had a lasting effect in the British commonwealth which Kachru (1992) described as a kind of linguistic schizophrenia that has kept users of English from recognizing the legitimacy of nativized varieties of local Englishes (e.g., Indian English, Nigerian English, etc.) by equating difference to deficiency in varieties not pertaining to the inner-circle varieties such as British and American English, above all (Kachru, 1986).

The race-based ideal of the native-speaker was not limited to the British Commonwealth. Within the American context, references to the native speaker fallacy are found in the application of the Direct Method (also known as “the Berlitz method”) and in private language schools such as Berlitz where “native-speaking teachers was the norm” (Richards & Rodgers, 2014, p. 12). The Berlitz, or Direct method, (coincidentally criticized for its lack of theoretical foundation), has also had a long-lasting effect on the evolution of language teaching methodology. Even today, the Berlitz school promotes their “teachers with native language” as one of the reasons why students should choose the Berlitz school (Learn to speak with confidence, n.d). The Berlitz language schools (as demonstrated in its marketing) rely on the mythical value of the native speaker to promote its schools. The wide-spread adoption of this method in the mid-twentieth century meant that the Native-speakerist ideology associated with it was also dispersed and adopted in many markets worldwide.

Despite the popularity of the Direct Method in the mid-twentieth century, other teaching methodologies, such as the Grammar Translation Method, did not promote the idealization of the NEST’s alleged superiority. As Richards and Rodgers (2014) explained, the Grammar Translation Method was characterized as follows: the foreign language is learned with the goal of reading its literature or to benefit from the mental discipline of language study, the major focus includes reading and writing the foreign language, the foreign language grammar is taught deductively, and the student’s native language is the medium of instruction. Hence, teachers utilizing this method required declarative (rather than procedural) grammatical knowledge (for an explanation on declarative vs. procedural knowledge, see Saville-Troike, 2012). In the Grammar Translation Method, knowing grammatical rules and facts was more important than communicative competence in the target language. Furthermore, using the Grammar Translation Method, the teacher should be able to speak the student’s first language, or L1 to teach the target language. Clearly, a monolingual NEST would be rendered useless under these circumstances.

Chomskyan monolingual bias

Perhaps, the most important factor bolstering the native speaker fallacy has been Chomsky’s notions of native speaker competence. Although Chomsky was not primarily interested in language learning, his works have nonetheless been of major influence on ELT. Chomsky’s (1965) conception of the native-speaker was of “an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance” (p. 3). There are two big limitations in Chomsky’s assumptions about native speakers. The first is Chomsky’s assertion that homogeneous monolingual communities are a societal norm, when, as Ortega (2019) argued, that this so-called norm is just a political imposition of the nation-state project pushing for unity. Ortega (2019) provided the example of Spain, to illustrate his point suggesting that even though Spanish is Spain’s official language, there are many established minorities in the country that speak Catalan and Galician along with Spanish. Ortega (2019) also pointed to Cameroon as a linguistically diverse nation: it accounts for 13.5 of Africa’s language diversity, even though the country only represents 2% of Africa’s total population. Ortega’s examples demonstrate the fallacy of Chomsky’s belief that linguistic communities are generally homogeneous and Ortega showed that heterogeneity is indeed more common.

The second important limitation of Chomsky’s concept of the native speaker is that he disregards multiple aspects of language performance. Chomsky’s failure to account for aspects, such as distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic), have the effect of positioning the native speaker as a perfect model of the language. Chomsky’s model of the native speaker as the ideal speaker encompasses erroneous assumptions involving the idea that native speakers don’t make mistakes, and, if they do, we should disregard these because they do not represent the idealized underlying native speaker competence (Chomsky, 1965). Does this mean that a highly proficient non-native speaker’s slip of the tongue reflects a defective underlying competence, while a native-speaker’s does not? Given that the native speaker is set above all others as the model for linguistic competence, the second language speaker’s mistakes can be used to call their linguistic competence into question.

Chomsky’s assumptions of the superiority of the native speaker have been taken up by applied linguists and subsequently disseminated widely within the English teaching profession. For example, Selinker (1969) based his term interlanguage on Chomskian ideas of native speakerism. Intended to be used as a tool to evaluate students’ language learning progression, Selinker defines interlanguage as “the observable output resulting from a speaker’s attempt to produce a foreign norm, i.e., both his errors and non-errors” (Mahboob, 2003, p. 28). The term interlanguage sets up a “comparative fallacy” where “foreign norm” is placed in subservient opposition to an idealized “native norm” (Bley-Vroman, 1983, p. 1).

Along with interlanguage, Selinker’s (1972) theory of fossilization implies that the second language learner is incapable of achieving native speaker norms, a supposition which further cements a negative bias against second language speakers. Theories such as Selinker’s interlanguage (1969) and fossilization (1972) have been ontologically influential in the field of applied linguistics, second language acquisition and, by extension, language teaching. The danger in the widespread acceptance of theories such as Selinker’s are that they have served to spread a negative bias towards non-native speakers. More recent language theorists have argued a move away from a native/non-native binary towards alternative ways of understanding language learning. Bley-Vroman (1983), for instance, argued that looking at the learner’s process, rather than the teacher’s status, is more fruitful, and, moves away from any bias against non-native speakers: “the learner’s system is worthy of study in its own right, not just as a degenerate form of the target system” (p. 4). Furthermore, cross-linguistic research in the last decade has demonstrated that “crosslinguistic effects arise among all the languages of a multilingual and across proficiency levels” (Ortega, 2019, p. 25). Put another way, a multilingual speaker’s language will possess characteristics that are inherently different from those of a monolingual. This does not necessarily mean the multilingual speaker is making errors;rather, that the multilingual has speech patterns with different distinctive characteristics based on how the two or more languages interact together. As Cook (1999) succinctly put it, “Multicompetent minds that know two languages are qualitatively different from those of the monolingual native speaker in a number of ways” (p. 191). If one follows this definition, the assumption that a bilingual mind is the sum of two monolinguals should be recognized as completely erroneous (Grosjean, 1989). This is why multilinguals should not be studied as defective monolinguals when studying the additional language(s) that they have acquired. The fluid semiotic code mixing, irrespective of which language is being used (L1,2,3) should be taken into account within Second language and applied linguistic science (Ortega, 2019).

Pedagogical competency

Due to native-speakearism, it is assumed that a native speaker is inherently endowed to teach their native language. However, linguistic competence is not the only skill necessary to become a successful teacher. Reducing effective language teaching to native language proficiency is a disservice to the language teaching profession. Pedagogically informed decisions play an essential role in teaching language, and so pedagogical competence should have at least equal weight with linguistic skill when evaluating the overall competence of a language teacher (Brown & Lee, 2015). Seidhofer has cautioned against automatically extrapolating “‘from competent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic grounds alone, without taking into consideration the criteria of cultural, social and pedagogic appropriacy’” (as cited in Árva & Medgyes, 2000, p. 369). Although language proficiency in the target language is an extremely important skill for a multilingual teacher’s toolbox (Houghton, 2018), proficiency in a particular language should not be the determinant of success for a language teacher.

According to research in applied linguistics, to be an effective teacher means, among many other qualities, having enough subject knowledge (Lamb & Wedell, 2013; Mujis & Reynolds, 2001; Pachler, 2007), which in language teaching includes “knowledge of second language acquisition theory, pedagogical knowledge, curricular and syllabus knowledge and cultural knowledge, as well as teachers’ proficiency in the target language and an awareness of the structure and features of the target language” (Richards et al., 2013, p. 232). Many of the above-mentioned skills should not be inherently definitive of a teacher’s status as a native speaker or a proficient speaker of a certain language. Acquiring knowledge of second language acquisition theory, pedagogical knowledge, curricular and syllabus knowledge requires many hours of professional development. Usually, these skills are acquired in teacher education through a certification that can take up to four years. Formal education and teaching experience allow teachers to make pedagogically-informed decisions that help them be effective teachers (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Clearly, language proficiency alone is not enough to be an effective teacher and, as I will be discussing in the NEST/NNEST classroom performance research section, hiring proficient/native English speakers without pedagogic competence could hinder the students’ language education.

Current Trends in Research on Teaching of English as Second or Foreign Language

Two decades since the beginning of the NNEST movement, many changes have come about in the fight against nativespeakerism and towards equality in the English teaching field. First, a number of anti-discrimination statements that address nativespeakerism have been published by important organizations: TESOL International Organization (2001; 2006); KOTESOL (2016); TESOL Spain (2016). Resistance to the native speaker bias started at a colloquium at the 30th Annual TESOL convention (organized by George Braine), evolved into a Caucus, and became a full-fledged Interest section in the TESOL organization by 2008. However, even if advocacy against discrimination practices towards NNESTs has gradually increased, there is still a long way to go before reaching full equality in the ELT industry.

Second, frameworks such as English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) (Jenkins, 1998),World Englishes (WE) (Kachru, 1992) and the multilingual paradigm (Ortega, 2019) have deconstructed and disproved the absolute entitlement placed on the native-speaker as a role-model of appropriate English language. However, these theories have not yet influenced mainstream society’s belief system, but only individuals within academia. Much of the research carried out so far indicates Native-speakerist-related phenomena is as strong as ever within the Asian context, as is the example in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, China, Thailand (Fithriani, 2018; Wang & Lin, 2013). The general audience, English teachers, students and recruiters, still grant the Inner-Circle native-speaker ownership over English (Widdowson, 1994). First, based on English teachers’ self-perception research carried out in Asia, some major issues appear reiteratively. NNESTs express anxiety of what they perceive to be their lack of proficiency and constantly look to NESTs as references for the target language and culture (Bouchard, 2017; Lee, 2016; Lee, Schutz & van Vlack, 2017; Rivers, 2011; Wang & Lin, 2013). In addition, most NNESTs hoped to reproduce NESTs pronunciation and oral fluency (Hertel & Sunderman, 2009; Jenkins, 2005; Lee, 2016, Mullock, 2003) suggesting that native-like pronunciation and fluency are the goal-post to be attained, again granting the native speaker ownership over the English language. And even if several exceptions are found (Huang, 2018) in which Chinese teachers expressed significant respect for Singaporean English teachers regarding their language accuracy and fluency, these instances of recognition towards English teachers outside of the inner-circle context are not commonplace within the Asian context. As mentioned above, paradigms such as ELF, WE, and multilingualism, although now acknowledged and respected within academia, have not yet trickled down to the general English Language Teaching field. Conclusively, NNESTs seem to take a deficit stance in terms of their language proficiency in a similar way as Medgyes (1994) originally conceptualized it, as the NNEST language handicap.

Third, research demonstrates that students also express greater preference to NESTs, recognizing them as language authorities, cultural ambassadors, and models for speaking and/or pronunciation (Chun, 2014; Huang 2018; McKenzie & Gilmore, 2017; Rao, 2005; Rivers & Ross, 2013; Tang, 1997). Students’ biases are also cultural and racial, as they express a preference for teachers with Western Anglo-Saxon Whiteness (Appleby, 2017; Fithriani, 2018; Hickey, 2018; Kubota & Lin, 2006; Leonard, 2019; Lowe & Pinner, 2016; Rivers & Ross, 2013; Stanley, 2013). Stanley (2013) and Leonard (2019) provided specific examples of how the “performance of foreignness” (Leonard, 2019, p. 168), closely tied to ethnicity, influenced students’ perception of their foreign teachers. Stanley’s (2013) study explored how a Chinese Canadian English teacher, strived to exaggerate a cultural identity of Westernness in order to overcome his apparent Asian-ness and establish authority as a native speaker. The NEST in Stanley’s (2013) study exaggerated their foreign-ness as a strategy to avoid students conflating the teachers’ ethnicity with their country of origin, and erroneous judgment of the teachers’ linguistic competence (Stanley, 2013; Leonard, 2019).

Despite some of the discouraging results mentioned above, other research into students’ perception of NESTs and NNESTs have shown encouraging results. For example, Chang’s (2014) implementation of a Word Englishes (WE) course at a Taiwanese university has helped students “acquire a deeper understanding of the language beyond rote learning of American or British standards” (p. 26). Indeed, applying conceptual frameworks such as WE or English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) offers legitimate alternatives to challenge students’ Nativespeakerist views. Students, as customers with demands (Holliday, 2008) that influence recruiters’ hiring practices, could play an important role in helping to overcome discriminating practices against the hiring of NNESTs. Still, documented examples of how students’ perceptions are changing remain infrequent within the ELT field outside of academia.

Recruiters/policy makers’ perceptions of NESTs/NNESTs in the Asian context

Research in the United StatesS, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Poland regarding recruiters’ and policy makers’ perceptions of NESTs/NNESTs, (e.g. Clark & Paran, 2007; Mahboob, Uhrig, Newman & Hartford, 2004; Kiczkowiak, 2019; Zhang & Zhan, 2014) has found that teaching experience, skills, methodology are necessary and important requirements for recruiters/administrators. Clark and Paran (2007), for example, reported that 72.3% of respondents “consider a job applicant’s being an NES either moderately or very important” (p. 417); while 45.9% of respondents in Mahboob, Uhrig, Newman & Hartford (2004) gave a rating of “moderately to highly important” (p. 109) to teachers of native English speaker status. In Zhang and Zhan (2014), two out of the six administrators expressed strong preference for native-speakers, while the other four emphasized the importance of language proficiency in NNESTs, some indicating “near-native proficiency” (p. 574). Even when Kiczkowiak (2019) attempted to separate out language proficiency and nativeness, one out of the five recruiters interviewed stated that regardless of actual linguistic proficiency “a ‘native speaker’ would be advisable [to teach a C2 level]” (p. 13). Unfortunately, being a native speaker or having near-native proficiency is still a significant aspect in the teacher recruitment process in many cases, even if Mahboob et al. (2004) show some encouraging results towards potential change in the native speaker bias. Within the Asian context, research in the form of surveying and interviewing both administrators and recruiters has been conducted through collection of data from teachers’ accounts of hiring discrimination based on race or nationality, or on analysis of job ads. In Kubota and Lin (2006), one of the authors recounted her experience at her former university in Hong Kong. Her Chinese superior, the program leader, decided to grant the position of deputy leader of the TESL program to a Caucasian, native speaker who did not hold a doctoral degree, demonstrating preferential treatment to the native speaker over Lin, who, although she held a doctoral degree and experience in the position, was Chinese, rather than Caucasian. According to Lin, this decision was made in an effort “to boost the public profile of [their] program in the local community” (p. 471).

While both nativespeakerism and Whiteness are at play in Kubota and Lin’s (2006) study, Hsu (2005) in contrast, describes how being a native speaker with a passport from an Inner Circle country might not suffice in a context like China. The author, a native speaker, and American Born Chinese (ABC), described his frustration with multiple rejections, obtaining replies like “You know, now in China, many students want their foreign teachers to have a white face. It is extreme, but it is understandable” (2005, para. 6). As Shao (2005) described, the English fever in China is so strong that recruiters frequently opt for less qualified teachers as long as they are NESTs and Caucasians (or even just Caucasians in some cases).

The preference for the hiring of NESTs is also evident in the online job ads placed by Language schools. Using a sample of ten English-teaching hiring websites, Song and Zhang (2010) showed that 78.5% of the total ads required applicants to be NESTs from an inner circle country. Ruecker and Ives’ (2015) extensive analysis of 59 websites within the Asian market indicated that 81% of job postings had NES status as one of the requirements. Those which did accept non-native speakers stated that NNES candidates had to “display greater qualifications” and that “a non-native will be scrutinized more [than native-speakers]” (p. 742). Furthermore, although not explicitly mentioned on the websites, the visuals (e.g. TEFL Haven and Hess International Educational Organization) conveyed limited responsibility “on teaching and the dominant presence of Whiteness” (p. 749). Through the use of the NEST fallacy and implicit prejudice, “the ideal candidate is overwhelmingly depicted as a young, white, enthusiastic, native speaker of English from a stable list of inner-circle countries” (p. 733).

Finally, accounts of private training centers recruiting white, unqualified people of Slavic ethnicity abound in endless numbers. For example, Braine’s (2010) account of Ozgur Parlak, who was hired as a teacher in Thailand “based on his looks [rather than] his qualifications” (p. 74); or Hartley & Walker’s (2014) example of Eric from Norway who was hired without needing to show any qualifications/teaching experience proof, and started teaching two hours after his interview. Braine’s research (2010), along with the work of Hartley and Walker’s (2014), demonstrate the implicit preference maintained by language schools for the hiring of ethnic Caucasians that continues to disadvantage non-White teachers. Kubota and Lin (2006) and Hsu (2005) have noted that one of the main alleged reasons for this type of racism is to comply with students’ demands. More research into recruiters’ perspectives via direct interviews (which is scant if, rather, non-existent) could provide further insights into the reasoning behind these discriminatory practices.

Native-speakerist issues prevalent in the Asian ELT context equate ethnic Whiteness (often performed as foreign-ness) to linguistic competence, and perceived linguistic competence with teacher effectiveness. The literature reveals that language school teachers, recruiters, and students share concerns over their teachers’ perceived language proficiency, and that high language proficiency seems to be more valued than teaching skills. In many cases preference for NESTs over NNESTs is justified on the grounds of perceived linguistic proficiency, especially regarding oral fluency and pronunciation. To please their “customers” (Holliday, 2008, p. 121), recruiters will frequently opt to hire teachers with less experience and education as long as they are proficient in the language, and as long as they are ethnically Caucasian. The Chinese and Korean government, in an attempt to raise language educational standards, are restricting working visas to foreigners holding a bachelors in any field and a passport from specific English speaking countries (EPIK, 2020; State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs, 2018). Consequently, many institutions are opting to hire individuals who might be much less pedagogically qualified and/or experienced than teachers who are unable to apply due to their citizenship status or mother tongue. The outcomes of these discriminatory hiring criteria are problematic. Equating or even preferring a native language proficiency, and ethnicity, over experience and qualifications in teaching is detrimental to the future of students’ education as well as the English language teaching profession.

NEST/NNEST classroom performance research

The systematic employment of these unfair hiring practices risks negative consequences on students’ language acquisition/learning. Performance-related research on teachers hired via these unfair practices is scant, but research into determining factors for language acquisition has shown that a teacher’s pedagogical competency, rather than their NES or NNES status, is what determines outcomes of higher success for students (Li and Zhang, 2016; Shin and Kellogg, 2007). In Li & Zhang’s study (2016), even though 70% of student participants indicated they preferred to be taught by a NEST, research results showed students had had significantly better pronunciation improvement with the NNEST. Both Levis et al. (2016), as well as Li and Zhang (2016), have suggested that pronunciation teaching does not, and should not, have to be a NEST domain. Li and Zhang’s (2016) research also showed that students’ perceptions of their teacher suitability can be specious and should not be taken as a legitimate reason to prefer NESTs over NNESTs.

Conclusion

The term native speaker evokes a binary that places value on the native over its inferior counterpart, the non-native speaker. Even though the current multilingual paradigm, along with ELF and WE disprove the superiority previously attributed to the NEST, these ideologies have not yet trickled down to the mainstream ELT market where language school professionals act as gatekeepers of who gets hired to teach. By conflating NEST/NNEST with country of origin and ethnicity through a monolingual-deficit lens, those not identified as the ‘ideal’ (e.g. white/foreign looking) NEST are discriminated against and automatically disqualified from applying for English teaching jobs. Research has already begun to demonstrate how pedagogical proficiency and linguistic competence are more important to student success than a teacher’s status as a native or non-native speaker of a language. More research into teacher classroom performance, modelled in the studies of Li and Zhang (2016), Shin and Kellogg (2007), and Levis et al. (2016), will further help debunk pervasive myths that nativeness, proficiency, and race, on their own, are enough for effective teaching. In order to achieve authentic language learning, we must ensure that continued research reaches the mainstream English teaching markets and receives political attention, given that the risk of remaining in the academic ivory tower will ultimately not help the millions of teachers being rejected from different institutions/countries.

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Endnote

1. With the impact of globalization, im/emigration, transcultural flow of information/ideas, and the fluidity of geographical and political boundaries, scholars have questioned the limitations of Kachru’s circles in modern society (Leimgruber, 2013). Most specifically, Yano (2009) described how even Inner Circle countries are experiencing demographic changes that pose questions to the Inner Circles “native” variety (e.g., the increase of Hispanics and foreigners in the United States for the last ten years; the emergence of native speakers of Singaporean English in Singapore, who speak this language not only at school, but at home and other environments). However, it is the fixity of Kachru’s circles called into question (regardless of whether we agree or not) that works as a useful metaphor in this article to express the ideology espoused by stake-holders in Asia: a fixed viewpoint as to what a “native speaker” is/looks like and how that fixity in connection to the inner, outer and expanding circles can lead to conflating ethnicity, native language, and nation-state imageries all together based on stereotyping. This is why concepts such as “foreign authenticity” play an important part in the explaining aspects of stake-holders perceptions. It helps explain how teachers obtain authority based on fixed stereotypes espoused by stake-holders on what a foreigner/native speaker is (or should be).

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