December 2020 – Educational Sociolinguistics

Language Learning Online – Challenges and Benefits

Hannah Southwood

In Chapter 12 of “What is Sociolinguistics?” Gerard Van Herk (2018) states that schools are a place where language ideologies collide with standard ideologies and speakers of marginalized languages are suppressed by the majority language (p. 212).

The COVID-19 pandemic forced educators and students to adapt to an online learning reality. Although we are more technologically ‘savvy’ with our smartphones, laptops, tablets and so on, it doesn’t mean teaching online is automatically easy.

Bailey and Lee (2020), studied the challenges and benefits of online instruction for both teachers and students. Although teachers who previously taught online had less challenges, the one common challenge among language teachers was the ability to find “live communication” time (p. 179). Bailey and Lee (2020) stated this challenge as one of the reasons language learning has previously been taught offline. One challenge might be that inexperienced teachers are unfamiliar with online teaching and learning platforms and cannot harness their benefits. That’s not to say experienced online teachers had less trouble.

Teachers and students around the world are aware of or or learn using the videoconferencing platform Zoom. Zoom facilitates interactions by allowing hosts and co-hosts to share their screen, participants use their microphones and cameras, and a chat box to engage without interrupting.

There are non-verbal feedback icons to raise your hand, answer yes or no, ask the speaker to go slower or faster, and emojis such as thumbs up. Both the participant and host have access to these features; however, host features are a bit different because they respond to the non-verbal participants use.

This is the non-verbal feedback participants are able to use.

These features can create a more interactive experience for participants and teachers. There are lots of other benefits such as student led classes, using other platforms such as Kahoot! or Mentimeter, engaging in real time. Other platform and online challenges Bailey and Lee (2020) found were: students getting distracted and technical issues.

What does this mean for language learning ?

Challenges

Bailey and Lee (2020) state two main potential challenges for language learning are are “authentic communication opportunities” and restricted “participation and classroom engagement” (p. 181). Participation and engagement may be restricted due to course design and lesson planning. Additionally, according to Gillet-Swan (2017), staff are required to learn and achieve higher levels of “technological competency and proficiency” in addition to their pre-existing workload.

Top 5 Benefits

Activities can be tailored to student needs (Pourhossein Gilakjani, 2014).
Online teachers are not the only information source, engaging in student led activities, teachers become participants (Riasati, Allahyar, & Tan, 2012).
Improved critical thinking (Hamann et al., 2012).
Students tend to be more open and show more reflection (Ellis et al., 2004).
In small group sizes, students are more engaged, increased discussions and they produce better learning outcomes (Hamann et al., 2012).

Looking toward the future and returning to Van Herk’s (2018) statement, a potential benefit of online language learning may be that marginalized language speakers find they have more power and louder voice using these platforms.

Questions:

What are some benefits and challenges you have experienced with online learning?

Have you found any benefits learning language/s online?

References

Bailey, D. R., & Lee, A. R. (2020). Learning from experience in the midst of covid-19: benefits, challenges, and strategies in online teaching. Computer-Assisted Language Learning Electronic Journal, 21(2), 178-198.

Gillett-Swan, J. (2017). The challenges of online learning: Supporting and engaging the isolated learner. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 20-30. https://doi.org/10.5204/ jld.v9i3.293

Hamann, K., Pollock, P. H., & Wilson, B. M.. (2012). Assessing Student Perceptions of the Benefits of Discussions in Small-Group, Large-Class, and Online Learning Contexts. College Teaching, 60(2), 65–75. http://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2011.633407

Kohnke, L., & Moorhouse, B. L.. (2020). Facilitating Synchronous Online Language Learning through Zoom. RELC Journal, 003368822093723. http://doi.org/10.1177/0033688220937235

Nonverbal feedback during meetings. (n.d.). Zoom Help Center. Retrieved December 3, 2020, from https://support.zoom.us/hc/en-us/articles/115001286183-Nonverbal-feedback-during-meetings

Pourhossein Gilakjani, A. (2014). A detailed analysis over some important issues towards using computer technology into the EFL classrooms. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), 146-153. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2014.020206

Riasati, M. J., Allahyar, N., & Tan, K. E. (2012). Technology in language education: Benefits and barriers. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(5), 25-30. https://www.iiste.org/ Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/1495/1427

Sociolinguistics vs. Linguistics: University Marking Practices

Chaoyang Zhang

In a world where there are thousands of languages; it is impossible for all people to have a standard way of speaking a certain language. In fact, there exist many variations within a specific language. A sociolinguistic approach towards language is fairer than a linguistic approach because it is based on the evidence in the real world (Van, 2018). Developing rules and constraints to describe how the ‘ideal’ language should be spoken or what is regarded as competent is not practical in the real world. Considering that speaking a language in a certain way is what is correct creates a homogenous speech community which is unfair for people like non-native students.

With the increasing number of international students in universities, marking practices are a major concern. According to Hudson; students who use dialects in universities face challenges in learning to read (Hudson, 2001). Other varieties of a language should be regarded correct hence nonnative speakers’ way of communication should be correct even for educational purposes. It is difficult for everyone to learn the standard variety of a language which is considered correct. I agree with the argument that certain language features are not wrong as they would be considered in the standard language variety (Van Herk, 2018). Nonstandard language is just a different way of saying the same thing. Language should not be used to gauge the competence of a student or performance. Accepting the different variations of language used by students is beneficial to them (Cheshire, 2005). If students are allowed to express themselves in essays and other evaluations through the variety that they are used to, they could be more successful than when forcing them to use a certain standard language. We should take into consideration that language policies and language teaching and learning policies should comply with the dynamic nature of language and culture, focusing on the collective shifting from monolingualism and monoculturalism to plurilingualism and pluriculturalism.

Reflection Questions:

1. Should the same marking criteria be used for native students and non-native students?

2. Could there be a possibility that many non-native students have failed to score high grades because of language barrier?

References

Cheshire, J.(2005). Sociolinguistics and mother tongue education. InAmmon,U.,Dittmar,N. andTrudgill,P.(Eds). (2005). Sociolinguistics: An introductory handbook of the science of language and society(2^nd) (2341-2350).Berlin: MoutondeGruyter.

Hudson, R.A. (2001). Sociolinguistics (2^nded).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Van Herk, G.(2018). What is sociolinguistics? (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.

Should we insist on correct grammar?

When discussing language attitudes and ideologies in class, an interesting question came up: should we correct people’s grammar? As demonstrated by Van Herk (2018), a language is in constant contact with other languages and experience the borrowing of words and expressions, changing significantly throughout its existence. Since it is normal for a language to change and to be used in different manners, should we insist on correct grammar?

This question brings up the aspect of prescriptivism vs descriptivism in language usage. Prescriptivism focuses on the correct and proper use of language, while descriptivism simply looks at how language is currently used (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, 2016). Linguists are said to favour descriptivism, as changes in a language are a natural process. Additionally, Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (2016) state that certain forms of prescriptivism can replicate and reinforce social equalities, specifically for language users who use a non-standard form of English. This video explains the two terms in a general manner.

I completely understand how deciding that one variety of English is ‘standard’ and ‘proper’ essentially excludes all others from being correct. However, as an ESL teacher, I greatly question if accepting any form of grammar is beneficial to the learners. Students who learn a language typically want to sound fluent and as close to native-like as possible. If teachers do not insist on teaching correct grammar and do not give any corrective feedback when mistakes are made, the chances of students speaking with appropriate grammar are greatly reduced, thus impeding the students’ goals. Additionally, using incorrect grammar can lead to break-downs in communication. As an online teacher to low-level learners, I often face the reality that they can only express themselves in the present tense. This impedes expressing an appropriate message, since I cannot know if they are really speaking in the present or do not possess the grammar to speak in the past or any other tense. Grammar rules can be seen as demanding and overly-specific by others, but I appreciate how each verb tense communicates facts in different manners. For example: “I had been reading my book…” vs “ I was reading my book…’’. The first implies that in the past, while one was reading their book, something else happened. The second phrase implies that the action is in the past and done. If we do not insist on correct grammar and accept any usage, how can we know what the speaker meant?

A breakdown in communication: https://www.dropbox.com/s/291ky2d14ucqdsb/Grammar%20mistake.jpeg?dl=0

As there are many language teachers in the classroom, I would love to know your thoughts. Should we insist on the proper usage of grammar for ESL learners? How can we use prescriptivist rules without replicating social inequities? How can we deal in break-downs in communication resulting from incorrect grammar usage?

References

Calude S, Andreea.(April 12, 2016). Does grammar matter? [Video] Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wn_eBrIDUuc

Van Herk, Gerard. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? 2eChichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley- Blackwell.

Wolfram, W., & Schilling-Estes, N. (2016). American English : dialects and variation (Third, Ser. Language in society). Wiley-Blackwell.

Collaboration: a new method of raising linguistic vitality?

Spicylover992

When I passed through the newly opened Uniqlo in St.Catherine, I was thinking about the last snap up of Kaws- the collection of collaboration with American artist Kaws. And I heard that the new collection— +J line this year (collaboration with Jil Sander) has caused another panic buying.

Besides the collaboration of two fashion brands, there is another kind of collaboration, which is the combination of a brand and a folk art/culture form, also prevalent nowadays.

Here is an example in China:

Florasis (花西子) “Huaxizi” is a Chinese cosmetic brand founded in 2017 and this year it releases the new collection of Miao collaboration cosmetic. Miao is an ethnic minority in China with the population of approximate 9.5 million. Miao is famous for its silver design, but this kind of handicraft is rarely seen in our daily life and many people know it just through TV series and in tourist spots. Miao silver design is facing the problem of being lost.

According to this situation, Miao silver design needs more promotion and Huaxizi just seized this chance.

In the collection you could see the unique flower and butterfly totem in the silver package and the silver detail is beautiful and meticulous.

On one hand, many people hold the view that this collaboration has raised the vitality of a traditional culture and it is a good way for Chinese people, especially young generation to know this minority culture. And the collection has also received good reviews abroad. On the other hand, for Huaxizi, the traditional culture element increases the sales and it helps to establish a good brand image.

This win-win situation just reminds me that some strategies of protecting indigenous and minority language also include the idea of “collaboration” : dual language pedagogy, translanguaging, exploring more language forms, like poetry, holding some cultural festivals/events, etc.

And if we turn our attention to the fashion industry, we may find that the language/culture collaboration is everywhere. For example, the new bag collection of Loewe, a famous Spanish luxury brand, is called “Ikebana”, which means flower arrangement in Japanese. The design of the bag was inspired by the flower container in Japan in the 19th century. The collection attracts a number of people to search “what is Ikebana”, including one of my friends, and after searching, she told me that Ikebana is so exquisite and she wants to learn Ikebana from a Japanese teacher. It sounds so crazy, but, think about your Korean learning friends, maybe the reason is just a fascinating Korean TV drama!

According to Van Herk(2018), ethnolinguistic vitality has something to do with institutional support, power and prestige of languages, demography ad community choices (pp. 162-163). And from my point of view, the effective promotion of one language may benefit the learning population, (even from domestic to the world), and the power and prestige of this language, and maybe other aspects.

So I am wondering if the collaboration with the fashion industry(or other commercial forms), which young generations love could be transformed to a new way to revitalize indigenous and minority languages?

However, like every coin has two sides, “collaboration” is not always appreciated.

According to comments on the internet, the collaboration of Huaxizi and Miao has also sparked controversy: some netizens suggest that the commercial strategy will hurt the core of Miao culture; traditional culture is put in a disadvantaged position in business; automated manufacturing just distorts the value of hand making, etc.

Likewise, the collaboration of language and the fashion industry may face a similar problem. Besides the risk it may take, the collaboration may just serve as an “access” for people.

How to provide people with sufficient resources? How to teach? and how to maintain this learning enthusiasm? In Van Herk (2018), it is also stated that “Revitalizing languages is expensive, requiring dictionaries, grammars, teaching materials, teacher training, and facilities.” (p.174). These should all be taken into consideration and we need further research to see if the collaboration is workable.

Here are my questions:

1)Do you have some favorite collaboration collections(or crossovers)? Any items.
2)Have you ever seen any successful collaboration of language/culture and another industry?
3) Do you expect the collaboration of language/culture and another industry? If the answer is yes, what kind of things should the leader be careful with? If the answer is no, could you please tell us your opinion?

References:

Van Herk, G. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? 2e Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

https://www.bilibili.com/video/BV1Wa411A7og/spm_id_from=333.788.videocard.2

Multinational Brand Names: A Sociolinguistic Perspective

Kathy

As a linguistic symbol, a brand name usually embodies the culture and image of its enterprise and contains the value of its goods. Choosing a good brand name is really significant for multinational corporations in selling products to international markets, especially in the current trend of economic globalization. In the article named Whetting Your Appetite, the authors mentioned that plenty of companies get international brand names wrong and their products’ name even becomes a laughing stock (Kelly and Zetzsche, 2012, p. 150). Then, what brand name should a multinational company choose when entering a foreign market?

In order to better answer this question, I would like to analyze some successful and well-known multinational brand names. For example, IKEA was originally composed of the initials of two founders, but it was named as “宜家”（yí jiā）in Chinese. This name came from a poem in 《诗经》(Shijing, also translated as the Book of Songs, the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry). The original verses are “桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家”，which used the fruits of the peach tree and the shady branches of the peach tree to symbolize the happy marriage. This name not only referred to the classics, but also took phonetics and semantics into consideration, which has high aesthetic value. After seeing this name, Chinese people may believe that buying furniture from IKEA can make their lives more pleasant and comfortable. There is no doubt that having a good name is one of the biggest reasons that IKEA is popular in China.

Furthermore, the naming story of Coca-Cola in China also shows the characteristics that successful multinational brand names should have. When Coca-Cola first started selling its products in China, it directly transliterated the original English name, using “蝌蚪啃蜡” （kē dǒu kěn là）(“tadpoles bite the wax”) as the brand name in China, without considering its meaning and social acceptance. Thus, every time when people saw that dark beverage, they would think about that weird image. As a result, Chinese people did not pay any attention to this product. Fortunately, Coca-Cola changed its brand name into “可口可乐”（ kě kǒu kě lè）（“allowing the mouth to rejoice”）and greatly increased its sales volume in China (Kelly and Zetzsche, 2012, p. 152).

The analysis of the above examples shows that consumers’ sociolinguistic backgrounds shape their responses to brand names. A good brand name must not only be novel and unique, but also conform to the specific sociolinguistic background of the target market, as it is influenced by a variety of sociolinguistic factors, such as values, language, culture and customs, etc (Li & Shooshtari, 2003). Some strategies, such as pun, alliteration, and metaphor can be applied in brand names to stimulate the purchasing desire of consumers better.

Therefore, with international trade continues to increase year by year, the selection of multinational brand names is becoming more and more crucial in expanding international markets and boosting consumption, which acts as the bond among international consumers and companies. Corresponding, multinational companies should keep in mind that they not only have to improve their products’ quality, but also have to create a proper and novel brand name that can attract people’s attention and get the favor of local people with specific sociolinguistic characteristics. “At the very least, a good brand name can prevent consumers from putting an item back on the shelf before they even give a try (Kelly and Zetzsche, 2012, p. 152).”

Question: Have you ever encountered any brand names that contain sociolinguistic features? Do you know any brands that have different names when facing different target markets?

References

Kelly, N., & Zetzsche, J. O. (2012). Found in translation: How language shapes our lives and transforms the world. TarcherPerigee.

Li, F., & Shooshtari, N. H. (2003). Brand naming in China: Sociolinguistic implications. Multinational Business Review.

https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E8%AF%97%E7%BB%8F/168138

Creating a Translingual Classroom: Is It Effective?

Shelly

Traditionally, educational systems have been monolingual, and in the language of the elite (Lewis 1976). According to Van Herk (2018), it is easier to “introduce multilingual education in societies where multilingualism is the norm” (p. 180). In this case, translanguaging can be considered as a way into ESL/EFL teaching and learning to support students in making metalinguistic connections and in leveraging all of their content and linguistic knowledge.

What is a translingual classroom?

Let’s have a look at what translingualism is. Translingualism means users gain meaning through their relations to other modes, particularly those drawn from popular culture (Pennycook 2007; Sultana, Dovchin &Pennycook 2015). Translingual pedagogy is by nature a hybrid practice, recontextualizing students’ translanguaging experiences to accomplish new goals using a hybrid set of routines and resources (David, Pacheco, & Jiménez, 2019).

Why do we create a translingual classroom?

As an ESL learner and teacher, I am wondering if it is more important to teach a standard accent or help students express themselves clearly and explicitly when learning a new language. From my perspective, comprehensibility plays a more crucial role than accent. Especially in some Asian countries, under the exam-oriented education system, teachers and students pay more attention to getting higher scores than using the language in their daily life. In this sense, students may suffer from awkward silences when they communicate with others. Therefore, it is necessary to change the mindset and welcome the translingual approach in a language classroom.

To begin with, it can support students as they engage with and comprehend complex content and texts. Next, it provides more opportunities for students to develop linguistic practices for academic contexts. Moreover, it can make space for students’ bilingualism and bilingual ways of knowing and support their socio-emotional development and bilingual identities.

How do we create a translingual classroom?

First, based on my experience, free talk at the beginning of the class is a great way to integrate the translingual approach and help students learn some new words, phrases, and expressions. Especially during the pandemic, online classes make it harder to build relationships with each other. Through this communication, students could have a chance to talk and learn the practical English they really need in daily life.

Second, we could encourage students to use their linguistic repertoire to communicate in class and emphasize both languages in a positive light. Creating a safe and comfortable language learning environment fosters all students, regardless of their native language. The video below shows how the ESL teachers use the translanguaging pedagogy in his multilingual learning class.

Moreover, we could also try to integrate multimedia in the ESL and EFL classrooms and find more appropriate songs with multiple languages to help students use their linguistic repertoire and enjoy the learning process. In my summer teaching, I tried song activities, which worked quite well, and students were highly motivated. Moreover, we could also have music and digital resources in multiple languages in the classroom, it will give all students the opportunity to build upon their native language and learn a second language. If possible, you could also use bilingual digital content that shows two languages side-by-side to help students make the connection between their native language and the second language.

However, some people argue that using their first language in an English class may affect students’ communicative competence in the target language and they may rely on their first language too much unconsciously. In this sense, language teachers may take more responsibility and give clear instructions in order to better practice the target language.

Questions:

1Do you think it is feasible to use translanguaging in ESL/EFL classrooms？

2 Have you experienced or used translanguaging pedagogy in the classroom?

References：

David, S. S., Pacheco, M. B., & Jiménez, R. T. (2019). Designing translingual pedagogies: Exploring pedagogical translation through a classroom teaching experiment. Cognition and Instruction, 37(2), 252-275.

Dovchin, S., Sultana, S., & Pennycook, A. (2015). Relocalizing the translingual practices of young adults in Mongolia and Bangladesh. Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts, 1(1), 4-26.

Lewis, G. (1976). “Bilingualism and bilingual education: The ancient world to the Renaissance.” In Bilingual Education: An International Sociological Perspective, ed., J. A. Fishman, 150–200. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Pennycook, A. (2007). Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows. London: Routledge.

Van Herk, G. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.

This is Your Language on Stress

by Conner

One of the small surprises I’ve encountered this semester is the struggles I’ve had in find things to write about for this blog–and for every other assignment, too. My writing has felt stilted and strange, and everything takes significantly longer than it did in the past. I mean…am I just getting old? Or is something else going on?

It could be because I’m under a lot of long-term stress because of the pandemic. Studies have shown that the more stressed you are, the less complex your thoughts—it’s called the disruptive stress hypothesis (Suedfeld & Rank, 1976).

So when even thinking about things is harder than it used to be, you can imagine the impact this will have on our personal interactions, including our ability to express ourselves clearly to others in speech and writing. Researchers have found that the ability to deliver a coherent narrative demands good executive functioning, and executive function is taxed under stress (Arnsten, 2009).

**I’d be sweaty too if I tried to run Zoom on that old computer in the background**
*Image by andreas160578 from Pixabay*

A 2014 study found the more stress you’re experiencing, the less complex thoughts you’ll be able to form and express to others (Saslow, et. al.).

Okay, this is all fine, but it’s mostly about the brain. Why did I want to put it in a sociolinguistics blog? Let’s say that, as the above study also noted, long-term exposure to stress can also lead to long-term changes in your brain, “which concurrently leads to both lower complexity and…exaggerated reactivity under pressure.” Stress makes you have problems thinking complex thoughts, which means you have problems expressing and understanding these thoughts in speech and writing when you try to deal with other people.

Oh, also, the tools we use to communicate have changed. It seems like changes in society + changes in our brains + changes in the ways we communicate with each other could result in some pretty fundamental language change.

**At least you’re kind of close to someone when you use one of these old school jams**
Image by Michael Schwarzenberger from Pixabay

Researchers at the University of Michigan have already began to study language change over the course of the pandemic. They note that previous crises like World War II caused language change because it brought people together in novel ways, but the current pandemic has been keeping people apart (Popiolek, 2020).

As society changes and our brains change concurrently, so will the way we speak to each other. So if you’re struggling, take consolation! You might just be stressed. Or getting old. Possibly a combination of the two.

Have you noticed a difference in the way you express your ideas to others since the pandemic has started? Beyond simple vocabulary changes, do you think we will see long-term linguistic effects from the pandemic in the future?

Resources

Arnsten A. F. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nat Rev Neurosci, 10(6), 410-22.

Popiolek, K. (2020). Researchers study how COVID pandemic is affecting language change. MSU Today. https://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2020/researchers-study-how-covid-pandemic-is-affecting-language-change/

Saslow, L. R., McCoy, S., van der Löwe, I., Cosley, B., Vartan, A., Oveis, C., Keltner, D., Moskowitz, J. T., & Epel, E. S. (2014). Speaking under pressure: low linguistic complexity is linked to high physiological and emotional stress reactivity. Psychophysiology, 51(3), 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12171

Suedfeld P. & Rank A. D. (1976) Revolutionary leaders: Long-term success as a function of changes in conceptual complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(2), 169.

Plurilingual education in indigenous context

Tong Ye

When we talk about the concept of pluricultural competence or plurilingual education, it is most likely framed in the European context, or similar contexts where plurilingualism is more ubiquitous (Coste & Zarate, 2009). It is also well-recognised that the language teacher profession has developed historically as a largely one language-only enterprise, leading to the accepted view that, as long as the teacher has proficiency in the target language, then her other languages, or lack of them, are irrelevant (Moloney, 2017). Combining these two phenomena, a question has been raised in my head: what would plurilingual education mean in other contexts and what should we expect from teachers in those contexts where the learners’ own languages play a key role in the learning process?

Through taking a look at the indigenous contexts where language loss has a great impact on education, I got a better idea of how bilingual education is conducted inside of indigenous classrooms from the indigenous school boards in Montreal and proved that plurilingualism is not exclusive only in European contexts. The inspiration came from Kroskrity’s (2018) long-term research that was conducted in two ideologically divergent Native American linguistic communities, which demonstrates that the indigenous language ideologies associated with bilingualism, multilingualism and plurilingualism surprisingly persist and these ideologies are different in modes of language transformation and the nature and scope of recent language revitalization efforts. Based on this research, I found that the adoption of plurilingual education can be very beneficial for students in indigenous schools, yet certain challenges regarding counteracting indigenous language extinction, such as qualified teacher shortage, hegemonic influence of other mainstream languages and underfunding of school boards are daunting tasks waiting to be solved (Gomashie, 2019; Kroskrity, 2018; Taylor et al., 2008).

Among all these problems, language loss among Indigneous peoples is symbolic of a destructive colonization process that has threatened Indigenous communities to their very core. Having traditional Indigneous language speakers and bilingual programs within Indigneous community schools and the larger school board are essential for language revitalization and success for Indigenous Students (Taylor et al., 2008). However, indigenous languages are extremely at risk, and fluent speakers of these languages are few and far between. One hurdle all schools face is that there are not many fluent indigeous language instructors, which has left a huge gap that few people can fill. The hegemonic influence of other mainstream languages here in Montreal also undermined Indigenous plurilingualism and replaced all other Indigenous languages with English or French, promoting massive language shift toward these languages, and in refiguring language and identity relationships (Kroskrity, 2009).

We cannot end this discussion with many concrete answers, since these problems that have been discussed will not be resolved overnight, or by simply changing teacher requirements or offering professional development support for indigenous schools. Nevertheless, I hope the complex topic motivates and encourages you, as educators, to consider these things when moving forward in all educational contexts and hopefully discover a way in which plurilingualism theories are utilized to empower students from different communities.

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References:

Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). Plurilingual and pluricultural competence. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Gomashie, G.A. (2019). Kanien’kéha/Mohawk Indigenous Language Revitalisation Efforts in Canada. McGill Journal of Education/Revue des sciences de l’éducation de McGill, 54(1).

Kroskrity, P. V. (2009). Embodying the reversal of language shift: Agency, incorporation, and language ideological change in the Western Mono community of Central California.

Kroskrity, P. V. (2018). On recognizing persistence in the Indigenous language ideologies of multilingualism in two Native American Communities. Language & Communication, 62, 133-144.

Moloney, R. (2017). The Plurilingual TESOL Teacher: The Hidden Languaged Lives of TESOL Teachers and Why They Matter Elizabeth Ellis. Boston, MA: De Gruyter Mouton, 2016. Pp. xiv+ 313. TESOL Quarterly, 51(2), 475-477.

Taylor, D., Caouette, J., Usborne, E., & Wright, S. (2008). Aboriginal languages in Québec: Fighting linguicide with bilingual education. Diversité urbaine, 69-89.

To Switch or Not to Switch?

Shelly

我们今晚去吃pizza吧 ? (Shall we go out for pizza tonight?)

OK, 走吧 ! (ok. let’s go!)

你的pre在什么时候？（When will you do a presentation?）

下周。（Next week.）

This is the common and natural interaction when talking to my friends in my daily life after studying abroad: switching between the languages I can speak. This kind of language phenomenon is called “code-switching”.

According to Van Herk (2018), code-switching is a common phenomenon when “people who share more than one language get together and use two (or more!) languages (or “codes”) to communicate” (p. 136). Not surprisingly, bilinguals sometimes decide that only one of their languages is appropriate for a particular situation. But how do people in different contexts decide which language to use? Based on Van Herk, speakers switch language by considering “where they are, who they’re talking to, and what kind of speech activities are involved” (p. 149).

First, code-switching helps people to better express themselves. One example that came into my mind was that I switched from Mandarin to my local dialect instantly when my old friend called me in my local dialect. My roommate was quite surprised at that time because I switched so quickly and didn’t even notice. Sometimes I switch languages because the local dialect can express a sense of humor that can only be understood by the local community. Moreover, we felt closer when we interacted with each other in dialect. The other example is my students switched from English to their first language when they could not find a proper word in English. In this case, code-switching helped them to and we could work together to figure out the English expression.

Additionally, code-switching also carries affective functions that serve to express emotions. In China, people feel shy to express their love or gratitude to parents directly. My friend told me that her parents never say emotional and romantic words to each other. Moreover, it’s unheard of for me to say “I love you” in Chinese to my parents face to face. However, using English makes it easier and more natural to express this feeling, because it helps people get rid of awkward moments and feelings. Nevertheless, when they try to use Chinese to say those words, it sometimes sounds too serious and a little bit strange to do so. In this case, we select the ‘right’ language for each context or situation. The languages can have strong emotions when they are unavailable or only partly available at moments (Busch, 2017). English builds a bridge for people to express their feelings. In addition, when people want to express a feeling of sympathy to others, they are more likely to use English than Chinese, which has similar to acts expressing love.

However, sometimes, people will try to avoid code-switching because they do not want to make others feel excluded. It reminds me of the circumstance where we use English instead of Chinese to talk in a group discussion when most of the group members are Chinese. In this way, we try to avoid code-switching in this circumstance because we don’t want the other classmates who cannot understand Chinese to feel excluded from the conversation. As Busch stated, we don’t want people to feel the restrictive or exclusive power of linguistic categorization when language is not available to them (Busch, 2017).

All in all, there is no wall between languages (Rhymes, 2014). Individuals can use a collection of ways to participate in effective communication. Code-switching helps to build a bridge between different languages for better and effective communication and interaction.

Questions:

Have you ever code-switched in your study, work or daily life?

Can you share one or two examples with us and explain why do you code-switch?

References

Busch, B. (2015). Expanding the notion of the linguistic repertoire: On the concept of—The lived experience of language. Applied Linguistics, 38(3), 340-358.

Van Herk, G. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? 2e Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Rymes, B. (2014). Communicative repertoire. In B. Street and C. Leung (eds) Routledge Companion to English Language Studies. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 287-301.

Language and Time

Kevin Anderson

How does language change over time? Are new words just fads or do they become part of our repertoires forever? How do we measure change in language? Van Herk (2018) discusses how we should look at language through time. He mentions that linguistic change should be reflected in the variation of language at a single point in time. We can see the variation and we know people’s language will change over time, but exactly how that happens is more complex than it seems.

Van Herk (2018) describes how people individually go through changes and adopt new vocabulary in life. For pronunciation, there seems to be less change through time. People change along with changes seen in the community. As cited in Van Herk (2018, p. 64), people who mostly use the old form or the new form of language continue to do so over decades, whereas people who are in between and using both forms in approximately equal proportions shift towards the newer form. This means people who are not stubbornly sticking to the old form or the newer form of language will eventually drift toward the newer form of language. Van Herk (2012) mentions how teenagers are the most adventurous when it comes to using new words. Adults tend to shift toward language that benefits them socially and economically, as cited in Van Herk (2018, p.71).

There is a certain ‘community’ that forms around new words, a sense of belonging with other people who use similar terms. Likewise, people using older words will feel a sense of belonging with people who use the same words.

This article discusses the ways anglophone people of different generations pronounce street names in Montreal. Older people call St. Laurent, “St. Lawrence street”, as do I, and they say, “Mountain Street” instead of “De la Montagne”, which I do not. My father grew up in “Ville de Leery” near “Chatta-gee”, whereas younger people will say “Ville de Léry” and “Chateauguay” in a more accurate French accent. I find myself pronouncing these areas both ways depending on who I am talking to and what age they are. People of all ages seem to say, “Saint Catherine Street”, though. Change does not always involve only one language as can be seen.

Where do you fall within language and time? Do you stick to the old ways or the new ways? Are you somewhere in the middle, and if you are, how much will you slip towards the newer way of speaking? At what age will your language stop changing?

Reference:

Van Herk, Gerard. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? 2e Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.