September 2022 – Educational Sociolinguistics

Promoting inclusivity in Francization courses through plurilingualism

Xavier Xia

The Quebec government provides free French courses to recent immigrants or study/work permit holders as part of its Francization program. These courses aim to improve the students’ proficiency in French and their ability to integrate into the Quebec society (Amireault, 2011).

I have been taking one of these courses at the Chinese Family Service Centre of Greater Montreal since January. My classmates, age 16 to 55, come from many places in the world. They have different L1(s), education background, and have been living in Quebec for varying lengths of time. They also have different motivations for learning French: some plan to immigrate to Quebec permanently, while others might decide to move to another province or another country entirely. However, despite the diversity of the class, my teacher insists a “French-only” policy.

As we know, learning a new language is akin to learning a new identity. The “French-only” policy, which forbids students from using other languages, is very predominant. Even though French is the only target language in this context, this policy is highly problematic because it creates a learning environment that solely encourages students to build their Quebecois identity, often at the expense of their original identities.

Instead, I think the Francization program should take a plurilingual approach (Marshall & Moore, 2013), like encouraging students to use their L1(s) in class. In addition to facilitating French learning, a plurilingual approach would also make the course more inclusive and reflect the multicultural and multilingual reality of the province we live in. For instance, my class comprises students from China, Hong Kong, Iran, Australia, Chile, and Mexico. I would like to see my teacher encourage the students to help each other in their L1(s) instead of interrupting them, saying “Parlez en francais!”. Not only is it an excellent way for us to learn French and build Quebecois identity, but it also reinforces our original identities by speaking our L1(s) in the classroom. Nevertheless, I suppose teachers who were taught to use monolingual methods and had been teaching in this way could find difficulty adapting or even resist this new educational methodology. Furthermore, students who have learned other additional languages in a monolingual environment could also question the benefit of plurilingualism.

Question:

Do you agree that plurilingualism can promote inclusivity in Francization courses?

What other challenges face the adoption of plurilingualism in Francization courses?

References:

Amireault, V. (2011). Identity construct of adult immigrants learning French in Montreal. Canadian and International Education/Education canadienne et internationale, 40(2), 61–74.

Marshall, S., & Moore, D. (2013). 2B or not 2B plurilingual: Navigating languages literacies, and plurilingual competence in postsecondary education in Canada. TESOL Quarterly, 47, 472–499. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.111

Getting ready to embrace a new language or getting ready to pass an exam …

Carlos Slompo

My experience with adult second language learners in the last two decades has confirmed the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) prevalence in the instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) settings and so has my participation in two professional training courses intended as pedagogical updates: the Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (CELTA), and the Certificazione di competenza in didattica dell’italiano a stranieri (DITALS).

These training experiences have confirmed a very high expectation for elicitation; reduced teacher talking time and class management, always having the CLT as approach and task-based language teaching (TBLT) activities as a primary pedagogical tool.

According to Cambridge University (2022), the CELTA gives teachers (both native and non-native speakers) a range of techniques and practical experience. Teachers get hands-on practice and observation of experienced teachers and apply the content learned during the course by delivering communicative teaching with authentic language learners. According to the University of Siena (2022), the DITALS theoretical basis is the communicative approach and grammar as instruments for language acquisition.

In these training contexts, where teachers are subjected to growing pressure regarding planning, and management of communicative-oriented tasks, besides constant assessment and grading, there is no or little space to consider one crucial purposeful direction of instruction models: personal student development. The preparation process for proficiency exams can illustrate the frustration of an adult L2 learner, doubting the prevalence of CLT in foreign language learning settings where proficiency exams are usually concerned. Tasks proposed in the exams can be accomplished through individual studies and form-focused drills, which was my personal experience. For some adult students, a very tangible outcome is needed: passing certified proficiency exams, frequently designed to fit the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) on a six-point scale, being A1 for beginners, up to C2 for those who have mastered the target language.

Allan’s (2006) study shows that paradox. Proficiency exams may actually act as “the only” gate to acceptance in the main stream of academic studies, and students might want to overcome that barrier by constructing individual strategies. Therefore, reinforcing the individual pragmatist study of a language for “passing” purposes only, leaving government policies of integration having language competence as a parameter even more blurred.

Such contradictions, where teacher training courses and employers advocate a communicative-orientated posture from teachers and, conversely, proficiency exams have few communicative tasks required, raised my interest in arguing the legitimacy of the CLT method prevalence.

Discussion questions

Would a more critical position towards CLT and TBLT help teachers and students create a healthier balance in foreign language learning settings? Where such an approach could be seen as not the only one, but one of the tools at hand.

Have you ever taken any CEFR proficiency exams in any European language? If so, what languages and levels did you take? How did you study for it?

Was taking the exam a gateway for something? Did it feel more like an obstacle? Why did you take it?

References

Cambridge, U. o. (20022). Teaching qualifications. Retrieved from https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/teaching-english/teaching-qualifications/celta

Dawn Allen (2006) Who’s in and who’s out? Language and the integration of new immigrant youth in Quebec, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 10:02-03, 251-263, DOI: 10.1080/13603110500256103

Siena, U. o. (2022). Certificazione de Competenza in Didattica dell’Italiano a Stranieri. Retrieved form https://ditals.unistrasi.it/home.asp

How does society influence Chinese and Canadian language education?

Yi Hu

I have lived in Montreal for more than one year. In February of this year, I chose to learn French at the language centre in Montreal. Since I have studied some French before I came here, I could deeply experience the differences in language teaching between these two countries.

In China, teachers were more likely to teach us some grammars, like conjugations and some words that were related to the texts. However, teachers in Montreal are different. They prefer to teach us some useful knowledge that we can apply in our daily life. For example, we have already learned the vocabularies about clothes and food. They also teach us some grammars but that is not the main point. Students can improve their French skills more easily here. I think the reasons that cause these differences are the different social cultures and surrounding environments. I will explain these in more details in the following paragraph.

*French Syllabus in Montreal (left)*
VS
*French Syllabus in China (right)*

China’s current social context of education is test-oriented. Teachers excessively pursue students’ academic performance but ignore the practical application of language, and simply indoctrinate teaching with Chinese thinking mode based on exam-oriented education, which will lead to ‘Chinglish’. Meanwhile, China is a monolingual country, meaning learners are in a group where all their classmates are proficient in the same L1 and share the same cultural identities (Thomas, 2022). Outside of the classroom, they usually speak Chinese, so there is no foreign language environment for students to practice.

On the contrary, teachers in Montreal pay more attention to the practice and the cultivation of students’ autonomous learning abilities. Students are usually asked to try to do one task in class, and then study and answer questions by themselves, to become their own knowledge. Teachers do not pay much attention to the test scores, but to the cultivation of students’ individual abilities. Meanwhile, students have a real language environment in Montreal. They can have many opportunities to try to put what they have learned into practice. In this article https://www.ednewsdaily.com/five-major-differences-between-the-chinese-and-american-education-system/, the author also gave us some other educational differences between Eastern and Western countries which are influenced by government policy and cultural norms.

I do think that one of the ways to show good performances in French or language learning is to get a ‘good’ grade, but it is not enough. I still remember what Professor Mela Sarkar said in class at that time, ‘many students with good grades cannot successfully order a cup of coffee in the coffee shop’. Therefore, our ability to communicate smoothly and comfortably with others is also a sign of good language learning; these two need to be integrated.

Last but not the least, I want to say that there is no best language teaching model, only the most suitable. After all, our social environment is different. However, do you think it is necessary to integrate these two different educational models together?

Reference:

Thomas, E. (2022). Issues and ideas for a monolingual context. International House. https://ihworld.com/ih-journal/issues/issue-48/issues-and-ideas-for-a-monolingual-context/

How does society influence Chinese and Canadian language education?

Yi Hu

In China, teachers were more likely to teach us some grammar, like conjugations and some words that were related to the texts. However, teachers in Montreal are different. They prefer to teach us some useful knowledge that we can apply in our daily life. For example, we have already learned the vocabularies about clothes and food. They also teach us some grammar but that is not the main point. Students can improve their French skills more easily here. I think the reasons that cause these differences are the different social cultures and surrounding environments. I will explain these in more details in the following paragraph.

Reference:

Thomas, E. (2022). Issues and ideas for a monolingual context. International House. https://ihworld.com/ih-journal/issues/issue-48/issues-and-ideas-for-a-monolingual-context/

“In my language” —— do not set limitations and respect all languages

Heng Ding

The idea of this blog comes from the video posted by Amanda Baggs on Youtube called “In My Language” (you can find the link below). Briefly speaking, Amanda is an autism-rights activist and in this video, she showed and explained to the public how she interacted with the environment, which seems to be “mysterious and puzzling” from the generally accepted language perspective.

When I first watched this video, I was unfamiliar with Amanda’s situation and all the actions she made, as it’s not what we generally think “communication” or “language” is. Personally, one of the biggest reasons is that spoken language represents the most widespread mode of social communication (De Stefani & De Marco, 2019). It’s true that most of our thoughts are verbally expressed by symbols by which we build connections with the world, but there is a limitation to such a statement. De Stefani et al (2019) also argued that language should be considered always in relation to the background of a person’s mood, emotions, actions and events from which the things we are saying derive their meanings. Language is not limited to spoken or written words and sentences and there are many other factors such as personal identity and emotions that we should take into consideration. As a result, it’s not wise that we hold a narrow view of language and communication.

In Amanda’s case, she mentioned that “nobody was giving any chance, as usual, to the kinds of language and communication that people who are non-standard in some way often develop whether or not we also develop more standard language”, which is sad. In my opinion, the so-called “non-standard languages” cannot be looked down upon but instead deserves people’s understanding and respect as although in a minority position, they are also certain ways of how people interact and communicate with the world.

“Rub the face in a book, twirl string, play with water”, does this look different? No! It’s just a dominant way of communicating with the world.

References

De Stefani, E., & De Marco, D. (2019). Language, gesture, and emotional communication: An embodied view of social interaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02063

“Is my English negatively affected by my Chinese Dialect?” The Incorporation of Chinese Dialects into English Learning Process

Yurun Zhang

Dialects are considered to be regional forms of a language and serve the people of specific regions (Guo, 2004), and there are more than 2000 dialects or sub-dialects in China (Li, 2006). However, those dialects do not have a place both in Mandarin and English teaching classrooms. Standard Mandarin is expected to assist English learning because some research proves that accents caused by Chinese dialects are negatively transferred to English speaking (Huang, 2017). Therefore, teachers tend to tell students to practice and imitate standard English ways of speaking and writing to avoid being influenced by Chinese dialects. In addition, before becoming English teachers, people need to pass an exam to grade their Mandarin level. Only people who can reach the first three levels can be qualified for teaching English, so those who only speak dialects or have heavy accents when speaking Mandarin cannot become English teachers.

Here is a video to help you understand Chinese dialects:

I randomly asked five of my friends in China. They all speak English and Mandarin. Four can speak their dialect (Nanjing dialect, Xuzhou dialect, Wu dialect, Chinese Min), and the other can only understand their dialect, but cannot speak (Zhoushan dialect which belongs to Wu dialect). In addition, three of my friends used to be English major students and now work as teachers or translators. Two questions were asked: 1) Do you think Chinese dialects influence English learning? 2) Do you think Chinese dialects hinder people’s English development? Four participants answered that they feel Chinese dialects do affect English pronunciation, and one of the four participants said she sometimes can tell which province people come from when hearing them speak English. And all five participants agree that Chinese dialects do not hinder English development. Two said English should be regarded as a communication tool. As long as others can understand, people do not need to change their pronunciation.

There is much research highlighting the necessity of integrating native languages in EFL classrooms (Martin, 2001; Valencia, 2018) but little research is made on including first language dialects in EFL classrooms. For many students, languages they first learned are dialects. They start with learning and speaking dialects at home and only begin learning Mandarin after 7 years old when going to primary schools. Therefore, Chinese dialects should not be ignored in the English learning process. These ways of pronouncing and writing English affected by Chinese dialects should be differentiated from errors. They are not wrong but just different ways of speaking (Van Herk, 2018). Teachers should be more tolerant and inclusive, leaving room for Chinese dialects in an English class. The integration of students’ first language dialects into the classroom also informs students that it is incorrect to judge others’ pronunciation, grammar or word choice no matter what languages others speak. This can make students more confident even if their ways of speaking and writing English are affected by dialects. Negative attitudes of first language dialects may also result in the intolerance of other languages or cultures, which may leave students with a wrong belief that languages need to be spoken in the standard variety.

Questions

Do you think students’ first language dialects hinder their second language development? Should we include first language dialects into the second language learning process? How can we do that?

References

Guo, L. (2004). The relationship between Putonghua and Chinese dialects. In M. Zhou & H. Sun (Eds.), Language policy in the People’s Republic of China (pp. 45-54). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_3

Huang, L. (2017). The negative transfer of Chinese dialects on English pronunciation: Case study of Wenzhounese. [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. University of Wisconsin-Platteville.

Li, D. C. S. (2006). Chinese as a lingua franca in Greater China. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 149–176. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190506000080

Martín, J. M. (2001). Nuevas tendencias en el uso de la L1. ELIA, 2, 159-169. http://hdl.handle.net/11441/33967

Valencia, H. G. (2018). The integration of native language in EFL classes. English Language Teaching, 12(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n1p1

Van Herk, Gerard. (2018). What is sociolinguistic? (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.

New intelligibility in globalization

Di Niu

Van Herk (2018) accurately defined ‘mutual intelligibility’ in SLA in the conceptual context of sociolinguistics. I am curious if the ‘intelligibility’ stems from so-called globalization. Is this wave bringing new intelligibility? In fact, this term may also refer to the genuine integration of older generations into world Englishes (Lee, 2016). For example, younger generations in China may have been too focused on new globalized technologies rather than observing what is happening between older generations and the context of world Englishes. Their focus is more on the material by-products of globalization. My grandparents’ generation, on the other hand, may regard English as a self-opportunity that can redefine the mutual intelligibility between ‘I’ and the word. Should older generations in China be marginalized simply because they do not speak English?

After some consideration, I realized that this was incorrect. Because language is still inextricably linked to the socioeconomic context. In a society, the coexistence of older generations and word Englishes must be established. The older generations are, in fact, still involved in the globalized context of world Englishes. They are currently generating new possibilities in the context of sociolinguistics. My grandfather, for example, used to be an editor and, despite his retirement, continues to write and try to learn English in his own unique way. This proactive action contributes to China’s constant globalization scenarios. Indeed, this understanding of world Englishes underpins the sense of new intelligibility: In the globalized context, new mutual intelligibility has emerged between the sparking curiosity and creativity of older generations and world Englishes.

In other words, there is an important place for these seemingly marginalized groups because they interpret their intelligibility to English in their own way. As a result, these scenarios in real life are capable of bringing novel comprehension of globalization.

Furthermore, this new intelligibility is directly related to educational sociolinguistics. This shift in perspective would allow us to reconsider the role of learners in SLA. This type of reflection should take into account all societal scenarios. Consequently, using a macro perspective to draw a final conclusion from social phenomena is preferable. Moreover, in terms of world Englishes, the self-centered thinking model may at times ignore other groups in society. Basically, this intelligibility lies in thoroughly comprehending how SLA is linked to the entire society. Again, older generations will always be a part of the globalized world and will not be excluded. Therefore, I believe that the new intelligibility in globalization should be accompanied by a forward-looking vision as well as a humble attitude toward reconsidering older generations in world Englishes.

Finally, world Englishes represent an unprecedented high point in sociolinguistics. The situation varies from ‘place to ‘place’ (Van Herk, 2018). Learners discover the magic of SLA through practice, observation, and reflection. Nonetheless, in the age of globalization, such mutual intelligibility is emphasized. Finally, this new intelligibility arises from spontaneous participation (e.g., older generations) in the globalized context through one’s own interaction with world Englishes.

Questions:

Do you have any thoughts on the new ‘mutual intelligibility in the context of globalization?

Reference

Amin, A. (2020). Attitude Towards Language in Sociolinguistics Settings: A Brief Overview. REiLA: Journal of Research and Innovation in Language, 2(1), 27-30.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge university press.

Li, F., & Shooshtari, N. H. (2003). Brand naming in China: Sociolinguistic implications. Multinational Business Review.

Lucas, C. (Ed.). (2001). The sociolinguistics of sign languages.

Koerner, K. (1991). Toward a history of modern sociolinguistics. American Speech, 66(1), 57-70.

Van Herk, G. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? (Second, Ser. Linguistics in the world). John Wiley & Sons.

English-taught programs in Europe

Elisa Xinhui XU

While the European Union comprises different countries with diverse goals, the desire to increase cross-border mobility is a widely recognized consensus.

The number of English-taught bachelor’s programs (ETBs) in Europe in 2009 was practically 0, however in 2017, this number has grown to nearly 3000. The chart below shows the trend of the augmentation of ETBs in Europe from 2009 to 2017.

https://monitor.icef.com/2017/09/fifty-fold-increase-english-taught-bachelors-degrees-europe/

(Please click the link to find the chart)

The number of English-taught bachelor’s programmes offered by institutions in the European Association for International Education, 2009–2017. Source: EAIE/StudyPortals

Why are there fast-growing English-medium programs in Europe? What are the expectations and motivations? Depending on the survey, boosting internationalisation at European institutions, and raising school’s international profile are the main reasons. By developing English-medium programs, schools can attract more top talent at both the student and staff levels. The Academic Cooperation Association tracked the effects of these programs and based on the results, 84% thought these programs improved international awareness of the institution, and 81% mentioned strengthening the partnership with foreign institutions.

It is undeniable that English as the lingua franca is highly related to high academic performance, international mobility opportunities, and global employment. English-taught programs are not only common in European countries. In some other regions and countries such as Hong Kong, Dubai, Singapore, and mainland China, English-speaking programs are growing at a fast speed. These programs are highly influenced by the status of English and strengthen linguistic imperialism in return. From some local students’ view, “teaching in English may endanger the survival of the local language and culture”. In addition, some domestic students may fear their insufficient proficiency in English.

English, as the common second language worldwide, has become more and more important, and this snowball effect may overvalue English and affect different nations in different ways. For native speakers of English, they may take more advantages from global opportunities and international communications. However, non-native speakers may accept this situation and study English at the expense of undervaluing their local language culture, if they want to integrate into the global market.

REFERENCES

ICEF Higher Education. (2017). Fifty-fold increase in English-taught bachelor’s degrees in Europe. ICEF Monitor. https://monitor.icef.com/2017/09/fifty-fold-increase-english-taught-bachelors-degrees-europe/

ICEF Higher Education. (2017). English-taught programmes in Europe up more than 300%. ICEF Monitor. https://monitor.icef.com/2015/06/english-taught-programmes-in-europe-up-more-than-300/

Does Bilingual Music Threaten the Future Of The French Language & Culture?

Catherine Shieh

The French language Hip-Hop genre has undergone one of the most interesting and complex transformations amongst other genres of music in the past few decades. In Montreal, the rap scene reflects the city’s location within North America (predominantly English) and inside the province of Quebec (dominated by French), as well as other diverse immigrant communities. Sarkar and Allen studied the multilingual code-switching in Quebec rap and cited in an interview:

“Montreal style… is the only place where you have a cultural mix like that, whether it’s English, [Haitian] Creole, then French, but all the same as Quebec French” (2007).

The mixture of language in the music industry has contributed to the rise of a new unique subculture known as Franglais (French + English) and the French traditionalists of Montreal are afraid the bilingual nature of these songs and its ideologies could threaten the future of the French language and culture within the province.

Among the bilingual rappers of this generation are Loud, FouKi and the Dead Obies. They have received backlash from columnists such as Mathieu Bock-Coté from Le Journal de Montréal who says, “Franglais is a slippery slope toward Anglicization. These bourgeois-bohemian adolescents who think speaking English or Franglais will make Montreal into a New York are deluded because it is the French language that gives the city its cachet” (Soupcoff, 2020). Bilingual artists rapping in Franglais are known to face serious political and social challenges. Quebec’s music industry is heavily subsidized by the Provincial government, but only if artists and record companies are producing music in French. Some groups have lost subsidies from the Provincial government for Francophone artists because it did not reach at least 70% of its lyrics in French. Many rising artists severely depend on these types of grants and need to carefully ensure they meet the French word count requirements in their song. For the sake of language and cultural preservation, bilingual rappers are constantly rejected and are treated unfairly by Commercial French radio stations.

View this post on Instagram

A post shared by @foukizay

For bilingual artists, rapping in multiple languages allows for more creativity. In terms of rhymes, it opens the world to more lyrical possibilities and a better rhythmic flow. In my opinion, Montreal being one of the biggest multicultural cities of our country, the music should reflect the state of our modern cultural evolution and space. Sadly, the music industry is still dominated by cultural elites, that are white Francophone artists, and they will continue to suppress the rise of this subculture. Music has long been used by many as a tool to expose social injustices. By restricting and limiting an artist’s freedom to express as they desire, are we preventing the evolution of sociocultural growth?

References

Hornberger, N. H., & McKay, S. (2010). Sociolinguistics and language education. Multilingual Matters.

Sarkar, M. and Allen, D. (2007) Hybrid identities in Quebec hip-hop: Language, territory, and ethnicity in the mix. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 6 (2), 117–130.

Soupcoff, M. (2020). Marni Soupcoff: What’s worse – unilingual labelling or contracting … National Post. Retrieved September 22, 2022, from https://nationalpost.com/opinion/marni-soupcoff-whats-worse-unilingual-labelling-or-contracting-covid-19

Van Herk, G. (2018). What is sociolinguistics? 2e Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Dismantling the Native and Non-Native English Speaking Teachers’ Divide

Albert M.

A widespread and deeply rooted bias against Non-Native English Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) have been documented. This prejudice, together with the discourses that support and normalize it, has been described as the ideology of Native Speakerism (NS). To be specific, Native English Speaking Teachers (NESTs) are claimed to be the best teachers based on the conception that they “represent a ‘Western culture’ from which springs the ideals both of the English language and of English language teaching methodology” (Holliday, 2005, p. 6). NNESTs are viewed as not only linguistically, but also instructionally inferior and second-class citizens to their native speaking colleagues (Curtis & Romney, 2006). Of course, both NEST and NNEST have their own strengths and weaknesses.

In a classroom research conducted among my Canadian Language Benchmark (CLB) 4 students , I asked them: What kind of teacher do you like? a. Native Speaker of English (Teacher who is born in an English speaking country like Canada and whose first language is English) b. Non-Native Speaker of English (Teacher who is born outside an English speaking country and learn English as second language) c. No preference ( I like both), why?

At least 6 out of 7 students who answered the questionnaire on Google classroom disclosed: c. No preference. Their reasons being are: “I think native or non-native is not important. I like them both, because they are teachers. I do not like comparison- if someone who is not Canadian (NNEST) works in an educational centre, it is because s/he is qualified and deserves to teach English. The important thing for us students is to learn the English language – that teachers show us the way on how to improve our English. Teachers should not only be patient and responsible, but also to teach professionally.” Only one student answered b: NNEST “I like the second language teacher because I can understand him.”

Undeniably, the dichotomy of NEST and NNEST generates negative reactions from scholars. In fact, Motha (2014) reveals that the “NEST/NNEST construct shrinks to simply one aspect of linguistic identity. This is not to deny that in many countries the construct is heavily racialized.” While Motha et al. (2012) reject the dichotomy as simplistic, they offer a more appropriate nomenclature and argue for the term translinguistic identity as a more appropriate emphasis on the “considerable linguistic and pedagogical resources that translinguistics identity offers English language teachers.” (p. 15)

It is high time to dismantle the NEST and NNEST divide. At this juncture, the trend in English Language Teaching (ELT) is the promotion of plurilingual multicompetence among TESL teachers. As Ellis (2016) noted that “in the future, the question we ask of a TESL teacher may be neither: “Are you a native or non-native speaker?” nor “What variety of English do you speak?” but rather “How rich is your linguistic repertoire and how can this be deployed as a pedagogical resource?”

Questions:

As a learner of English as a second language, what is your teacher preference: NEST or NNEST, why?
As a native speaker of English, do you consider yourself as monolingual, why?

References:

Curtis, A. & Romney, M. (2006). Color, race, and English language teaching: Shades of meaning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Ellis, E. (2016). “I may be a native speaker but I’m not monolingual”: Reimagining all teachers’ linguistic identities in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 50(3), 597-630.

Holliday, A. (2005). The struggle to teach English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Motha, S. (2014). Race, empire, and English language teaching. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Motha, S., Jain, R., & Tecle, T. (2012). Translinguistic identity-as-pedagogy: Implications for language teacher education. International Journal of Innovation in English Language Teaching, 1(1), 13–28.